Table 2.
Unadjusted and adjusted odds ratio from binary logistic regression models investigating the relationship between intimate partner violence (IPV) and the utilization of maternal healthcare services, India (NFHS-4).
| Variables | Adequate ANC (Four or more ANC visits) | Delivery assistance by skilled health provider | PNC within two days of delivery | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unadjusted OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) | Unadjusted OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) | Unadjusted OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR (95% CI) | |
| Intimate partner violence (Any form of violence) | ||||||
| No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| Yes | 0.63 (0.59–0.67)** | 0.90 (0.84–0.97)** | 0.68 (0.64–0.73)** | 0.98 (0.90–1.06) | 0.82 (0.77–0.87)** | 1.09 (1.02–1.16)** |
| Place of residence | ||||||
| Urban | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Rural | 0.94 (0.87–1.02) | 0.89 (0.79–0.99)* | 0.99 (0.92–1.07) | |||
| Caste | ||||||
| SC/ST | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| OBC | 0.78 (0.72–0.83)** | 1.19 (1.09–1.30)** | 1.01 (0.94–1.08) | |||
| Others | 0.97 (0.89–1.06) | 1.08 (0.96–1.21) | 1.07 (0.98–1.17) | |||
| Religion | ||||||
| Hindu | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Muslim | 1.21 (1.10–1.33)** | 0.63 (0.56–0.70)** | 0.93 (0.85–1.01) | |||
| Others | 0.77 (0.69–0.85)** | 0.57 (0.50–0.66)** | 0.86 (0.77–0.96)** | |||
| Women's age (years) | ||||||
| 15–24 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| 25–34 | 1.16 (1.08–1.25)** | 1.07 (0.97–1.18) | 1.05 (0.97–1.13) | |||
| 35–49 | 1.28 (1.13–1.45)** | 1.04 (0.90–1.20) | 1.07 (0.95–1.20) | |||
| Age at marriage (years) | ||||||
| < 18 | 0.85 (0.79–0.91)** | 0.94 (0.87–1.01) | 0.87 (0.82–0.93)** | |||
| ≥ 18 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Parity | ||||||
| 1 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| 2–3 | 0.76 (0.71–0.82)** | 0.56 (0.50–0.63)** | 0.79 (0.73–0.85)** | |||
| ≥ 4 | 0.53 (0.47–0.60)** | 0.41 (0.36–0.48)** | 0.61 (0.55–0.68)** | |||
| Women's education | ||||||
| No education | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Primary | 1.22 (1.10–1.35)** | 1.25 (1.12–1.39)** | 1.13 (1.03–1.24)** | |||
| Secondary | 1.42 (1.30–1.56)** | 1.57 (1.42–1.74)** | 1.19 (1.09–1.29)** | |||
| Higher | 1.58 (1.37–1.83)** | 2.31 (1.79–2.97)** | 1.27 (1.10–1.47)** | |||
| Partner's education | ||||||
| No education | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Primary | 1.18 (1.06–1.32)** | 1.21 (1.08–1.35)** | 1.16 (1.05–1.28)** | |||
| Secondary | 1.13 (1.03–1.24)** | 1.27 (1.15–1.40)** | 1.18 (1.08–1.29)** | |||
| Higher | 1.09 (0.95–1.25) | 1.51 (1.24–1.83)** | 1.20 (1.05–1.37)** | |||
| Women's employment status | ||||||
| Unemployed | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Employed | 1.08 (1.00–1.17) | 0.87 (0.80–0.95)** | 1.11 (1.03–1.19)** | |||
| Household size | ||||||
| 1–4 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| 5–6 | 0.95 (0.88–1.02) | 0.93 (0.85–1.02) | 0.99 (0.93–1.06) | |||
| ≥ 7 | 0.79 (0.73–0.86)** | 0.83 (0.75–0.92)** | 0.88 (0.81–0.95)** | |||
| Wealth index | ||||||
| Poorest | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Poorer | 1.27 (1.16–1.40)** | 1.37 (1.24–1.50)** | 1.19 (1.09–1.29)** | |||
| Middle | 1.68 (1.51–1.86)** | 2.00 (1.77–2.26)** | 1.57 (1.42–1.74)** | |||
| Richer | 2.13 (1.89–2.40)** | 3.09 (2.63–3.63)** | 1.84 (1.64–2.07)** | |||
| Richest | 2.86 (2.48–3.30)** | 4.83 (3.85–6.06)** | 2.50 (2.16–2.89)** | |||
| Decision-making on healthcare | ||||||
| Wife alone | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Wife & Husband | 1.03 (0.93–1.15) | 1.00 (0.88–1.14) | 1.04 (0.94–1.16) | |||
| Husband alone/ others | 0.79 (0.71–0.89)** | 1.00 (0.87–1.15) | 0.88 (0.79–0.98)* | |||
| Access to mass media | ||||||
| No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Yes | 1.74 (1.60–1.89)** | 1.24 (1.14–1.36)** | 1.33 (1.23–1.43)** | |||
| Region | ||||||
| North | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
| Central | 0.64 (0.59–0.70)** | 0.83 (0.74–0.93)** | 0.92 (0.84–1.01) | |||
| East | 0.92 (0.83–1.01) | 1.07 (0.95–1.21) | 0.96 (0.87–1.06) | |||
| Northeast | 1.03 (0.92–1.15) | 0.63 (0.54–0.73)** | 0.63 (0.56–0.71)** | |||
| West | 2.33 (2.06–2.63)** | 1.17 (0.99–1.39) | 1.08 (0.96–1.22) | |||
| South | 3.28 (2.90–3.72)** | 3.91 (2.04–5.02)** | 1.21 (1.08–1.37)** | |||
Significance level: **p ≤ 0.01, *p ≤ 0.05.
Abbreviations: OR odds ratio, CI confidence interval.