Table 4.
Major findings of microbiota functions, nutritional and immunological factors, and microbial interactions.
| Study | Gut microbial functional alterations | Nutritional and immunological factors alterations | Gut microbial interactions alterations |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hypertension | |||
| Silveira-Nunes et al. (33) | - | Plasma levels of TNF, IL-6, and TNF/IFN-γ ratio were increased in hypertension | - |
| Palmu et al. (32) | Most prominent pathways were related to lipid metabolism, gluconeogenesis, and xenobiotic metabolism, etc. | - | - |
| Calderon-Perez et al. (29) |
Up-regulated in hypertension: Electron transport energy metabolism, anaerobic energy metabolism, DNA transformation, DNA replication, recombination and repair Down-regulated in hypertension: Signal Transduction_Two Component Systems |
Fecal SCFAs levels were higher and plasma SCFAs levels were lower in hypertension | - |
| Takagi et al. (34) |
Up-regulated in hypertension: Metabolic enzyme families and environmental information processing membrane transport Down-regulated in hypertension: Genetic information processing transcription, glycan biosynthesis and metabolism, and lipid metabolism |
- | - |
| Zuo et al. (28) | - | Hexacosanedioic acid, Cyclophosphamide (18:1(11Z)/0:0), Lysophosphatidylethanolamine (0:0/18:2(9Z,12Z), 20:0/0:0, etc.), lysophosphatidylcholines (18:0, 15:0, etc.), Palmitoyl-L-carnitine, N-stearoyl glutamic acid, Phosphocholine, Oleamide, Linoleic acid were increased in hypertension; 6-Hydroxynicotinic acid, L-Leucine, Guanidineacetic acid, Coprocholic acid, Riboflavin, 2-Oxo-4-methylthiobutanoic acid, Vitamin D3, Decenedioic acid, α-Tocotrienol, Pantothenic Acid, Lysophosphatidic acid (0:0/18:0), tetracosahexaenoic acid, Vitamin D6, pipecolic acid, 3-Indoleacetic Acid, MG(0:0/24:6(6Z,9Z,12Z,15Z,18Z,21Z)/0:0, 0:0/22:0/0:0, etc.), Eicosanedioic acid, Vitamin D5, corticosterone, N-stearoyl tyrosine, 8(S)-HETE, Coenzyme Q4 were decreased in hypertension |
- |
| Kim et al. (22) |
Up-regulated in hypertension: LPS biosynthesis, steroid degradation, ABC transporters, PTS, and bacterial secretion system Down-regulated in hypertension: ubiquinone and other terpenoid-quinone biosynthesis, beta-alanine metabolism, selenocompound metabolism, cyanoamino acid metabolism, d-alanine metabolism, one carbon pool by folate, riboflavin metabolism, and folate biosynthesis |
Plasma butyrate levels were lower in hypertension;Plasma levels of I-FABP, LPS, Th17 cells were higher in hypertension | - |
| Jin et al. (21) |
Up-regulated in hypertension: DNA-binding protein, Dehydrogenase, regulatoR, membrane, oxidoreductase, Transposase, Transcriptional regulator, Mate efflux family protein, radical SAM domain protein, hydrolase family 3, ABC transporter, Methyltransferase Down-regulated in hypertension: Hydrolase family 2, hydrolase family 43, integrase, Releases the supercoiling and torsional tension of DNA, tonB-dependent Receptor, DNA binding domain, excisionase family, integrase family, TonB dependent receptor, Phage integrase family, peptidase_, Histidine kinase, acetyltransferase, Efflux transporter rnd family, mfp subunit, Ragb susd domain-containing protein, Glycosyl transferase, family 2, Membrane, Transporter, helicase, domain protein, n-acetylmuramoyl-l-alanine amidase, transposase, Hydrolase |
- | - |
| Yan et al. (19) |
Up-regulated in hypertension: Membrane transport, LPS biosynthesis, steroid degradation, and enzymes involved in TMA production Down-regulated in hypertension: metabolism of other amino acid, cofactors and vitamins (including folate biosynthesis and metabolism, riboflavin metabolism, and ubiquinone biosynthesis), and SCFA-producing enzymes |
- | The number of hypertension-associated species showed stronger correlation to the severity of hypertension |
| Hypertension and borderline hypertension/Pre-hypertension | |||
| Huart et al. (24) | - | Fecal SCFAs (acetate, butyrate, and propionate) levels were higher in hypertension and borderline hypertension. | - |
| Han et al. (20) | - | - | Increasingly pervasive virus-bacteria linkages were found from healthy people to pre-hypertension people to hypertension patients |
| Li et al. (18) |
Up-regulated in hypertension: LPS biosynthesis and export, phospholipid transport, PTS, biosynthesis of phenylalanine and phosphatidylethanolamine, and secretion system Down-regulated in hypertension: branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis and transport, ketone body biosynthesis, two-component regulatory system, and degradation of methionine and purine |
Serum levels of phosphatidylserine, 3,4,5-trimethoxycinnamic acid, lysophosphatidylcholine, S-carboxymethyl-L-cysteine, and lysophosphatidylethanolamine were lower in hypertension and pre-hypertension | - |
| Preeclampsia | |||
| Chang et al. (30) |
Up-regulated in preeclampsia: LPS biosynthesis Down-regulated in preeclampsia: GPCR pathway |
Fecal levels of butyric and valeric acids were lower in preeclampsia | - |
| Pulmonary arterial hypertension | |||
| Kim et al. (31) |
Up-regulated in PAH: Pathways for the synthesis of several amino acids, including arginine, proline, lysine, homoserine, methionine, ornithine, and tryptophan Down-regulated in PAH: anaerobic energy metabolism, gluconeogenesis, isoprene bio-synthesis, etc. |
- | - |
GPCR, G protein-coupled receptor; I-FABP, intestinal fatty acid binding protein; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; PAH, pulmonary arterial hypertension; PTS, phosphotransferase system; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SCFA, short chain fatty acid; Th17, T helper 17; TMA, trimethylamine.