TABLE 1.

Active anti-viral components from LHQWC and JHQGG, and their mechanisms of action regulating viral life cycle.

1.1 Direct virucidal activity
Virus	Active component	Herb	References
Chikungunya Virus	Baicalin	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Oo et al. (2018)
Coxsackievirus A16	Glycyrrhizic acid	Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Gan Cao)	Wang et al. (2013)
Herpes simplex virus type1	Chinonin/Asphonin	Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge (Zhi Mu)	Jiang and Xiang (2004)
Newcastle disease virus	Baicalin	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Jia et al. (2016)
Respiratory syncytial virus	Lonicera japonica Thunb extracts	Lonicera japonica Thunb. (Jin Yin Hua)	Zhang et al. (2014)

1.2 Inhibit viral entry
Virus	Active component	Mechanisms	Herb	Ref
Coxsackie virus B3	Artemisinin	Inhibits viral absorption	Artemisia annua L. (Qing Hao)	Ma (2004)
	Baicalin	Reduces cellular lipid synthesis	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Wang et al. (2020a)
Herpes simplex virus	Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Extracts	Blocks viral binding and penetration	Houttuynia cordata Thunb. (Yu Xing Cao)	Zhou (2017); Hung et al. (2015)
Herpes simplex virus type1	Isatis tinctoria L. extracts	Inhibits viral entry	Isatis tinctoria L. (Ban Lan Gen)	Fang, 2005)
Herpes simplex virus type1 type2 and varicella zoster virus	Houttuynoid A	Blocks viral membrane fusion	Houttuynia cordata Thunb. (Yu Xing Cao)	Li et al. (2017a)
Herpes simplex virus type2	Chinonin/Asphonin	Inhibits viral adsorption	Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge (Zhi Mu)	Jiang et al. (2005)
Human cytomegalovirus	Baicalein	Blocks viral entry through inhibiting epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase activity and viral nuclear translocation	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Evers et al. (2005)
Human rotavirus	Rheum palmatum L. extracts	Inhibits viral entry	Rheum palmatum L. (Da Huang)	He et al. (2013)
Influenza A Virus	Flavonoids-enriched extract from Scutellaria baicalensis root	Reduces hemagglutinin	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Zhi et al. (2019)
	Rhein	Inhibits viral absorption	Rheum palmatum L. (Da Huang)	Wang et al. (2018)
	Isatis tinctoria L. extract Clemastanin B, epigoitrin, phenylpropanoids portion and the mixture of phenylpropanoids, alkaloids and organic acid fractions	Blocks viral attachment	Isatis tinctoria L. (Ban Lan Gen)	Xiao et al. (2016)
	Glycyrrhizin	Reduces endocytotic activity and virus uptake	Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Gan Cao)	Wolkerstorfer et al. (2009)
	Isatis tinctoria L. water extracts	Inhibits attachment of viruses to cells	Isatis tinctoria L. (Ban Lan Gen)	Chen et al. (2006)
	(+)-catechin	Inhibits acidification of endosomes and lysosomes	Ephedra sinica Stapf (Ma Huang)	Mantani et al. (2001)
	5,7,4′-trihydroxy-8-methoxyflavone	Inhibits fusion of virus with endosome/lysosome membrane	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Nagai et al. (1995a); Nagai et al. (1995b)
Influenza A virus, Coxsackievirus B3, Adenovirus	Patchouli alcohol	Inhibits infection at the earliest stages of the viral life cycle, including virus attachment and entry	Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth. (Guang Huo Xiang)	Wei et al. (2013)
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus	Flavaspidic acid AB	Inhibits viral endocytosis	Dryopteris crassirhizoma Nakai (Mian Ma Guan Zhong)	Yang et al. (2013)
Respiratory syncytial virus	Lonicera japonica Thunb. Extracts	Inhibits viral absorption	Lonicera japonica Thunb. (Jin Yin Hua)	Zhang et al. (2014)
	Ephedra Sinica water extracts	Inhibits viral absorption and penetration	Ephedra sinica Stapf (Ma Huang)	Zhu and Li (2012)
	Radix Glycyrrhizae water extracts	Inhibits viral attachment and penetration	Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Gan Cao)	Yeh et al. (2013)
SARS Coronavirus	Emodin	Targets spike glycoprotein thus inhibits receptor binding	Rheum palmatum L. (Da Huang)	Ho et al. (2007)

1.3 Inhibit viral replication and release
Virus	Active component	Mechanisms	Herb	Ref
Bovine viral diarrhea virus, a surrogate in vitro model of hepatitis C virus	Novel artemisinin derivatives (AD)	AD1 and AD2 inhibit the release of Bovine viral diarrhea virus -RNA	Artemisia annua L. (Qing Hao)	Blazquez et al. (2013)
Coxsackie virus B3	Emodin	Unknown	Rheum palmatum L. (Da Huang)	Cai and Luo (2014)
	Artemisinin	Inhibits viral replication	Artemisia annua L. (Qing Hao)	Ma (2004)
	Isatis tinctoria L. polysaccharides extracts	Inhibits viral replication	Isatis tinctoria L. (Ban Lan Gen)	Zhang et al. (2009)
Coxsakievirus B5 and respiratory syncytial virus	Emodin	Inhibits Viral biological synthesis	Rheum palmatum L. (Da Huang)	Liu et al. (2015)
Dengue virus	Lonicera japonica Thunb. aqueous extracts	The microRNA let-7a targets viral non-structural protein1	Lonicera japonica Thunb. (Jin Yin Hua)	Lee et al. (2017)
Ebola virus	18β-glycyrrhetinic acid	Binds to nucleoprotein	Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Gan Cao)	Fu et al. (2016)
Enterovirus 71	Glycyrrhizic acid	Inhibits viral replication	Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Gan Cao)	Wang et al. (2013)
	Rheum palmatum L. extracts	Reduces viral replication	Rheum palmatum L. (Da Huang)	Lin et al. (2009)
	Norwogonin, oroxylin A, mosloflavone	Inhibits expression of viral capsid proteins	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Choi et al. (2016)
	Baicalin	Interfers with 3D polymerase transcription and translation	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Li et al. (2015)
	Honeysuckle-encoded microRNA2911	Targets viral envelope protein1 gene of Enterovirus 71	Lonicera japonica Thunb. (Jin Yin Hua)	Li et al. (2018)
	Emodin	Diminishes cell cycle arrest at S phase induced infection	Rheum palmatum L. (Da Huang)	Zhong et al. (2017)
Epstein-Barr Virus	Baicalein	Represses Epstein–Barr nuclear antigen1 Q-promoter activity	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Zhang et al. (2018)
	5,7,2′-trihydroxy- and 5,7,2′,3′-tetrahydroxyflavone	Unknown	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Konoshima et al. (1992)
	Arctium lappa L. extracts	Suppresses viral replication and decreases viral antigen expression, including capsid antigen and early antigen	Arctium lappa L. (Niu Bang Zi)	Chen and Huang (1994)
Hepatitis B virus	Novel artemisinin derivatives (AD)	AD1 and AD2 reduce the release of Hepatitis B virus -DNA	Artemisia annua L. (Qing Hao)	Blazquez et al. (2013)
Hepatitis C virus	Pheophytin	Inhibits Hepatitis C virus -nonstructural3 protease	Lonicera japonica Thunb. (Jin Yin Hua)	Wang et al. (2009a)
Herpes simplex virus	Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Extracts	Suppresses viral replication via inhibiting NF-κB activation	Houttuynia cordata Thunb. (Yu Xing Cao)	Hung et al. (2015)
Herpes simplex virus type1	Isatis tinctoria L. extracts	Inhibits viral replication	Isatis tinctoria L. (Ban Lan Gen)	Fang (2005)
	Arctium lappa L. hydroalcoholic extracts	Suppresses viral replication	Arctium lappa L. (Niu Bang Zi)	Dias et al. (2017)
	Chinonin/Asphonin	Inhibits viral replication	Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge (Zhi Mu)	Jiang and Xiang (2004)
Herpes simplex virus type2	Chinonin/Asphonin	Inhibits viral replication	Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge (Zhi Mu)	Jiang et al. (2005)
Human cytomegalovirus	Artemisinin-derived monomers artesunate (AS)	Inhibits viral replication as hypophosphorylation (activity) of the retinoblastoma protein (pRb)	Artemisia annua L. (Qing Hao)	Roy et al. (2015)
	Genistein	Blocks viral immediate-early protein functioning	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Evers et al. (2005)
Human immunodeficiency virus type1	Artemisia afra	Unknown	Artemisia annua L. (Qing Hao)	Lubbe et al. (2012)
	Sennoside A	Inhibits viral replication by targeting viral reverse transcription process including inhibiting HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase-associated DNA Polymerase and Ribonuclease H activities	Rheum palmatum L. (Da Huang)	Esposito et al. (2016)
	Baicalein	Binds to the hydrophobic region of the HIV-1 integrase catalytic core domain	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Ahn et al. (2001)
	Baicalin	Inhibits HIV-1 reverse transcriptase activity	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Kitamura et al. (1998)
	Containing Scutellaria baicalensis aqueous extracts	Inhibits human immunodeficiency virus type-1 protease	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Lam et al. (2000)
Human rotavirus	Rheum palmatum L. extracts	Inhibits viral replication	Rheum palmatum L. (Da Huang)	He et al. (2013)
Influenza A Virus	Isatis tinctoria L. erucic acid	Reduces viral polymerase transcription activity	Isatis tinctoria L. (Ban Lan Gen)	Liang et al. (2020)
	Baicalein and biochanin A	Inhibits viral replication	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Michaelis et al. (2014)
	Oroxylin A	Inhibits neuraminidase	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Jin et al. (2018)
	Flavonoids-enriched extract from Scutellaria baicalensis root	Inhibits neuraminidase activities	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Zhi et al. (2019)
	Baicalin	Inhibits RNA polymerase activity	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Guo et al. (2016)
	Baicalin	Interacts with RNA binding domain of Non-structural protein1	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Nayak et al. (2014)
	Glycyrrhizin	Inhibits influenza virus polymerase activity	Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Gan Cao)	Moisy et al. (2012)
	Aloe-emodin	Inhibits viral replication through galectin-3 up-regulation	Rheum palmatum L. (Da Huang)	Li et al. (2014)
	Baicalin	Inhibits viral replication	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Sithisarn et al. (2013)
	Baicalin	Inhibits neuraminidase activity	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Sithisarn et al. (2013)
	Isatis tinctoria L. extract Clemastanin B (CB), epigoitrin, phenylpropanoids portion (PEP) and the mixture of phenylpropanoids, alkaloids and organic acid fractions	Inhibits viral replication	Isatis tinctoria L. (Ban Lan Gen)	Xiao et al. (2016)
	Isatis tinctoria L. extracts	Suppresses expression of influenza virus nucleoprotein	Isatis tinctoria L. (Ban Lan Gen)	Xu et al. (2010)
	Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth extracts	Suppresses viral replication	Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth. (Guang Huo Xiang)	Yang (2010)
	Fritillaria thunbergii	Unknown	Fritillaria thunbergii Miq. (Zhe Bei Mu)	Kim et al. (2020)
	Chlorogenic acid	Inhibits neuraminidase	Lonicera japonica Thunb. (Jin Yin Hua)	Ding et al. (2017)
	Honeysuckle (HS)-encoded atypical microRNA-MIR2911	Inhibits IAV-encoded PB2 and NS1 protein expression	Lonicera japonica Thunb. (Jin Yin Hua)	Zhou et al. (2015)
	Forsythoside A from Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl fruit	Reduces influenza viral M1 protein	Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl (Lian Qiao)	Law et al. (2017)
	Chalcones	Inhibits neuraminidase activity	Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Gan Cao)	Dao et al. (2011)
	Houttuynia cordata Thunb. flavonoids extracts	Inhibits neuraminidase activity	Houttuynia cordata Thunb. (Yu Xing Cao)	Ling et al. (2020)
	Isatis tinctoria L. N-butanol extracts	Inhibits viral replication	Isatis tinctoria L. (Ban Lan Gen)	Liu et al. (2012)
Newcastle disease virus	Baicalin	Inhibits apoptosis of virus-infected cells and suppresses viral spread	Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Huang Qin)	Jia et al. (2016)
Polyphenolic extracts	Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth polyphenolic extracts	Inhibits neuraminidase activity	Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth. (Guang Huo Xiang)	Liu (2016)
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus	Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth polysaccharides extracts	Inhibits viral replication	Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth. (Guang Huo Xiang)	Chen et al. (2020)
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus	Isatis tinctoria L. polysaccharide extracts	Inhibits viral replication	Isatis tinctoria L. (Ban Lan Gen)	Wei et al. (2011)
	Flavaspidic acid AB from Dryopteris crassirhizoma	Inhibits viral replication	Dryopteris crassirhizoma Nakai (Mian Ma Guan Zhong)	Yang et al. (2013)
	Isatis tinctoria L. polysaccharide extracts	Inhibits viral replication	Isatis tinctoria L. (Ban Lan Gen)	Liu (2016)
	Artemisinin	Inhibits viral replication	Artemisia annua L. (Qing Hao)	Liu (2016)
Respiratory syncytial virus	Isatis root extract	Inhibits viral NS1 and L proteins	Isatis tinctoria L. (Ban Lan Gen)	Zhang (2017)
	(-)-(R)-nyasol (= 4,4'-(1Z,3R)-Penta-1,4-diene-1,3-diyldiphenol and broussonin A	Unknown	Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge (Zhi Mu)	Bae et al. (2007)
	Lonicera japonica Thunb. Extracts	Inhibits viral biosynthesis	Lonicera japonica Thunb. (Jin Yin Hua)	Li (2010)
SARS coronavirus	Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Extracts	Inhibits SARS-CoV 3C-like protease and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase	Houttuynia cordata Thunb. (Yu Xing Cao)	Lau et al. (2008)
	Rheum palmatum L. extracts	Inhibits SARS coronavirus 3C-like protease	Rheum palmatum L. (Da Huang)	Luo et al. (2009)