Table 1.

Animal models and model-specific glial responses.

Pain Conditions	Animal Models	Glial Responses
		Schwann Cells	SGCs	Astrocytes	Microglia
Headache	Acute/Chronic dural inflammatory soup	ND	−⇧ pERK [13]	−⇧ GFAP [14]	−⇧ OX42 [14] −Release of inflammatory mediators [15,16]
	Cortical Spreading Depression (CSD)	ND		−Maybe involved in initiation and propagation of CSD wave, release of neurotransmitters [17,18,19].
	Nitroglycerin	ND	−⇧ pERK, S100 [20]		−Release of inflammatory mediators [21]
TMD	CFA injection in the TMJ	ND	−⇧ GFAP [22,23,24] −Release pro-inflammatory mediators [22,25,26] −⇧ Gap junction function [22] −⇧ neuronal activity (Nav1.7 upregulation) [25,26,27]	−⇧ GFAP [28,29,30,31] −Release pro-inflammatory mediators [28] −⇧ Gap junction function [28] −Increase neuronal activity (Nav1.7 and pNR1 upregulation) [28,30]	−⇧ Iba1/CD11b [32,33] −Release pro-inflammatory mediators [34]
	Carrageenan injection in the TMJ	ND	ND	ND	−⇧ Iba1 [35]
	Zymosan injection in the TMJ	ND	ND	ND	−⇧ Iba1 [35]
	Capsaicin injection in the TMJ	ND	−S100B [36] −⇧ Gap junction function [36,37]	ND	ND
	Formalin injection into the TMJ	ND	ND	ND	−⇧ CD11b [38]
	Masseter tendon ligation	ND	ND	−⇧ GFAP [39]	−⇧ CD11b [39]
	Tooth movement	ND	ND	−⇧ GFAP [40]	−⇧ CD11b [40]
	Chronic stress	ND	−⇧ GFAP [41] −Release pro-inflammatory mediators [41]	−⇧ GFAP [42] −Release pro-inflammatory mediators [42] −⇧ neuronal activity (pNR1 upregulation) [42]	−Not activated [42]
Dental pulp injury	Acute pulp exposure followed by mustard oil application	ND	ND	−⇧ Glutamine synthase activity [43] −Inhibition of glutamine supply reduces central sensitization [43,44]	−p38MAPK inhibitors reduce central sensitization [44]
	Pulp exposure followed by CFA application	ND	−⇧ GFAP [45,46] −⇧ Connexin [45,46]	−Not activated [45]	ND
	Pulp exposure alone	ND	ND	−⇧ GFAP [10,47] −⇧ Glutamine synthase activity [47]	−⇧ Iba1 [10]
HNC	Oral cancer cells inoculated into the rat gingiva	ND	−⇧ GFAP [48]	Not activated [48]	−Not activated [48]
	Oral cancer cells inoculated into the rat tongue	ND	ND	ND	−Activated [49]
	Breast cancer cells inoculated into the rat vibrissa pad	ND	−Not activated [50]	−⇧ GFAP [50,51]	−⇧ Iba1 [50,51]
	Oral cancer cells inoculated into themouse sciatic nerve to mimic PNI	−Myelin abnormalities [11]	ND	ND	ND
	Schwann cell supernatant injection	−⇧ Migration, proliferation, cell size in the presence of oral cancer cells [52]	ND	ND	ND

ND: No Data. Arrows: upregulation.