Table 15.

Effect of enteral feeding interventions that affect pathophysiological mechanisms of NEC in human studies.

Enteral Feeding Intervention	Effect on Pathophysiological Mechanism (Compared to Placebo/No Intervention)
Carbohydrate or sugar-based interventions
(SC) GOS + (LC) FOS	% Gastric slow wave propagation (electrogastrography) ↑ [243] Gastric half emptying time (echography) ↓ [243] Intestinal transit time (passage carmine red) ↑ [244] Stool pH ↓ [244] Stool viscosity ↑ [244]
SC GOS + LC FOS + AOS	Fecal IL8 = [245] Fecal calprotectin = [245]
Protein or amino acid-based interventions
Lactoferrin	Whole blood CD4+ CD25high Foxp3+ Treg cell number ↑ [246]
L-Glutamine	Lactulose recovery in urine day 7 ↓ [247] Lactulose recovery in urine day 30 ↓ [247] Lactulose/mannitol recovery ratio in urine day 7 ↓ [247] Lactulose/mannitol recovery ratio in urine day 30 ↓ [247]
Probiotic interventions
Lactobacillus reuteri	% Gastric slow wave propagation (electrogastrography) ↑ [243] Gastric half emptying time (echography) ↓ [243]
Bifidobacterium lactis	Lactulose/mannitol recovery ratio in urine day 30 ↓ [248]
Other interventions
Mixture of probiotics, prebiotics and lactoferrin	Serum IL5 (protein) at 0, 14 and 28 days = [249] Serum IL10 (protein) at 0, 14 and 28 days (protein) = [249] Serum IL17 (protein) at 0, 14 and 28 days = [249] Serum IFNϒ (protein) 0, 14 days = [249] Serum IFNϒ (protein) 28 days ↑ [249]

↑ depicts an increase, ↓ depicts a decrease; SC-GOS, short chain galacto-oligosaccharides; LC-FOS, long chain fructo-oligosaccharides.