Fig. 3.

Schematic summary of main effects of HMOs. A HMOs stimulate growth of beneficial bactria, such as Bififidobacteria, and inhibit growth of harmful bacteria to regulate gut microbiota composition [132]. B HMOs serve as pathogen binding decoy receptors to prevent pathogens from binding to epithelial cell receptors [149]. C HMOs alter glycocalyx [171], influence epithelial cell proliferation [168] and modulate tight junction protein expression [167], thereby reducing permeability of the gut barrier