Table 2.

Adjusted associations (odds ratio and 95% confidence intervals) between sociodemographic, housing and lockdown-related variables and maintenance/increase in nature exposure during COVID-19 lockdown (Portugal and Spain, n = 3157).

Variable	Indoor plants		Balcony plants		House/courtyard garden		Community private green space		Views of nature		Public natural spaces		Other
	Portugal	Spain	Portugal	Spain	Portugal	Spain	Portugal	Spain	Portugal	Spain	Portugal	Spain	Portugal	Spain
Sociodemographic and housing characteristics
Male (ref: female)	1.38 (0.87–2.24)	0.84 (0.54–1.32)	1.00 (0.61–1.67)	0.80 (0.49–1.32)	0.81 (0.46–1.46)	1.12 (0.60–2.21)	0.69 (0.47–1.05)	1.19 (0.75–1.95)	1.12 (0.82–1.53)a	1.07 (0.74–1.59)	1.08 (0.85–1.38)	1.30 (1.00–1.71)	1.54 (0.97–2.41)	1.43 (0.92–2.28)
Age group (ref: ≤24 years)
25–39 years	1.29 (0.70–2.38)	0.83 (0.22–2.47)	1.54 (0.80–2.98)	0.83 (0.18–2.80)	1.66 (0.75–3.72)	0.48 (0.03–2.79)	1.52 (0.88–2.62)	0.38 (0.06–1.44)	1.38 (0.95–2.01)	0.53 (0.17–1.39)	1.49 (1.08–2.07)*	1.06 (0.55–2.08)	0.78 (0.43–1.42)	0.14 (0.01–0.73)*
40–64 years	0.79 (0.43–1.44)	0.59 (0.16–1.64)	1.63 (0.82–3.27)	0.70 (0.16–2.25)	1.19 (0.54–2.63)	0.41 (0.02–2.27)	1.59 (0.90–2.83)	0.32 (0.05–1.18)	2.26 (1.50–3.41)*	0.51 (0.16–1.32)	1.74 (1.24–2.44)*	1.28 (0.68–2.48)	0.78 (0.42–1.44)	0.12 (0.01–0.57)*
≥65 years	0.93 (0.29–4.18)	0.28 (0.07–0.95)*	0.78 (0.26–2.89)	0.35 (0.07–1.38)	1.53 (0.27–28.95)	0.15 (0.01–1.02)	0.95 (0.32–3.49)	0.07 (0.01–0.28)*	1.69 (0.70–4.72)	0.51 (0.14–1.74)	1.78 (0.86–3.73)	1.68 (0.78–3.69)	0.54 (0.18–1.98)	0.11 (0.01–0.61)*
Tertiary education (ref: primary/secondary) b	1.27 (0.79–2.00)	1.29 (0.70–2.26)	1.13 (0.67–1.87)	1.02 (0.48–1.99)	1.32 (0.74–2.33)	0.51 (0.15–1.35)	0.85 (0.54–1.32)	1.69 (0.95–2.93)	1.03 (0.75–1.41)	1.17 (0.66–1.99)	1.29 (0.99–1.68)	0.79 (0.54–1.16)	1.54 (0.97–2.41)	1.55 (0.86–2.71)
Household size (no.)	1.01 (0.90–1.14)	0.82 (0.71–0.96)*	1.05 (0.92–1.19)	0.96 (0.81–1.14)	0.87 (0.75–1.01)	0.89 (0.72–1.11)	0.98 (0.88–1.09)	0.88 (0.75–1.03)	0.91 (0.84–0.98)*	0.92 (0.81–1.04)	1.02 (0.96–1.08)	0.98 (0.89–1.08)	0.95 (0.85–1.07)	1.01 (0.88–1.18)
Dependents in the household
Yes, children (ref. no)	1.02 (0.40–2.60)	3.14 (1.20–7.95)*	1.03 (0.37–2.97)	2.24 (0.71–6.62)	1.10 (0.33–3.91)	1.86 (0.43–7.04)	0.53 (0.22–1.31)	1.76 (0.66–4.57)	1.08 (0.54–2.15)	0.47 (0.16–1.21)	0.65 (0.38–1.11)	0.58 (0.32–1.07)	0.69 (0.27–1.77)	1.07 (0.41–2.68)
Yes, older adults (ref. no)	1.36 (0.53–3.91)	2.27 (0.72–7.99)	0.55 (0.21–1.61)	2.70 (0.66–14.38)	0.92 (0.31–3.18)	1.78 (0.32–14.60)	0.41 (0.18–0.98)*	1.17 (0.38–4.07)	0.97 (0.49–1.98)	0.52 (0.17–1.66)	0.89 (0.52–1.52)	0.82 (0.37–1.79)	0.54 (0.23–1.39)	0.40 (0.15–1.10)
Yes, disabled or dependent person(s) (ref. no) b	0.63 (0.24–1.81)	1.43 (0.44–5.72)	0.78 (0.25–2.87)	0.67 (0.19–2.76)	0.80 (0.23–3.34)	0.97 (0.20–7.34)	1.90 (0.57–8.83)	0.70 (0.23–2.58)	1.71 (0.74–4.25)	4.30 (0.78–80.72)	1.23 (0.66–2.31)	1.53 (0.66–3.49)	0.34 (0.13–0.97)*	0.80 (0.25–3.12)
No (ref. yes)	1.17 (0.47–2.81)	2.90 (1.21–6.53)*	0.79 (0.28–2.16)	1.51 (0.55–3.73)	1.14 (0.32–4.11)	1.76 (0.46–5.62)	0.66 (0.27–1.61)	1.55 (0.64–3.52)	1.00 (0.51–1.94)	0.45 (0.16–1.08)	0.90 (0.54–1.50)	0.82 (0.48–1.40)	0.50 (0.19–1.27)	0.91 (0.38–2.02)
Housing typology (ref: Rural single-family house)
Urban single-family house	0.87 (0.50–1.52)	0.94 (0.43–1.97)	1.40 (0.79–2.55)	0.97 (0.41–2.22)	1.14 (0.64–2.10)	1.12 (0.45–2.70)	1.07 (0.63–1.86)	1.05 (0.46–2.35)	0.81 (0.56–1.18)	0.28 (0.10–0.67)*	0.71 (0.52–0.96)*	0.49 (0.30–0.82)*	0.78 (0.45–1.34)	0.44 (0.16–1.07)
Apartment or top-floor apartment b	0.98 (0.61–1.57)	1.17 (0.58–2.23)	2.01 (1.22–3.32)*	1.23 (0.56–2.53)	3.49 (1.88–6.68)*	2.75 (1.17–6.03)*	0.78 (0.50–1.20)	1.14 (0.54–2.21)	0.84 (0.61–1.15)	0.30 (0.11–0.66)*	0.67 (0.52–0.87)*	0.54 (0.35–0.84)*	1.03 (0.64–1.65)	0.44 (0.17–0.98)*
Country of birth (ref: native)
Other European country	0.96 (0.45–2.38)	0.60 (0.28–1.38)	0.99 (0.41–2.96)	1.73 (0.59–7.44)	0.35 (0.16–0.87)*	1.49 (0.42–9.53)	0.54 (0.27–1.23)	0.62 (0.30–1.43)	1.01 (0.56–1.93)	0.72 (0.39–1.40)	1.20 (0.74–1.95)	0.64 (0.36–1.11)	0.73 (0.35–1.72)	0.82 (0.41–1.85)
Other World country	1.17 (0.55–2.88)	1.00 (0.46–2.50)	0.85 (0.38–2.29)	0.71 (0.32–1.80)	0.80 (0.32–2.48)	3.87 (0.81–69.62)	0.92 (0.47–1.98)	0.68 (0.34–1.55)	0.76 (0.46–1.30)	0.70 (0.39–1.33)	1.17 (0.76–1.80)	0.64 (0.36–1.07)	0.94 (0.46–2.22)	1.25 (0.59–3.10)
Lockdown-related variables
Type of housing during the lockdown (ref: main home)
Second-home or family/friends’ home b	0.41 (0.24–0.74)*	0.43 (0.21–0.95)*	0.79 (0.41–1.65)	0.23 (0.12–0.47)*	0.66 (0.31–1.52)	0.79 (0.28–2.87)	0.42 (0.25–0.74)*	1.24 (0.50–3.76)	0.81 (0.53–1.28)	0.31 (0.17–0.60)*	0.77 (0.52–1.15)	0.64 (0.34–1.15)	0.95 (0.50–1.96)	0.77 (0.35–1.88)
Lockdown duration (days)	1.00 (0.98–1.02)	1.02 (0.99–1.04)	1.01 (0.99–1.04)	1.02 (0.99–1.06)	1.01 (0.99–1.04)	1.02 (0.98–1.06)	1.01 (0.99–1.02)	0.98 (0.96–1.00)*	1.00 (0.98–1.01)	1.02 (1.00–1.04)*	0.99 (0.98–1.00)*	1.00 (0.99–1.02)	0.98 (0.96–1.00)	1.03 (1.01–1.06)*
Outside activities during the lockdown
Obtain essential goods/services (ref: no)	0.90 (0.48–1.59)	1.16 (0.52–2.38)	1.37 (0.73–2.46)	0.66 (0.21–1.67)	0.71 (0.29–1.55)	0.16 (0.01–0.77)*	1.24 (0.73–2.04)	0.49 (0.17–1.15)	1.05 (0.72–1.51)	0.38 (0.14–0.87)*	0.91 (0.66–1.25)	0.72 (0.45–1.16)	0.84 (0.44–1.50)	0.82 (0.33–1.79)
Going to work (ref: no)	0.94 (0.58–1.58)	0.59 (0.33–1.08)	0.62 (0.36–1.08)	0.60 (0.32–1.17)	0.34 (0.18–0.63)*	0.84 (0.36–2.22)	0.59 (0.38–0.94)*	0.63 (0.34–1.20)	0.95 (0.68–1.35)	0.61 (0.38–1.03)	0.72 (0.55–0.95)*	1.41 (0.96–2.07)	0.82 (0.51–1.36)	1.47 (0.75–3.19)
Assisting vulnerable people (ref: no)	1.19 (0.72–2.08	0.80 (0.42–1.63)	1.17 (0.64–2.29)	1.28 (0.57–3.43)	0.83 (0.44–1.66)	0.72 (0.32–1.84)	0.91 (0.56–1.52)	1.04 (0.53–2.26)	1.40 (0.97–2.07)	1.93 (0.98–4.29)	1.25 (0.95–1.66)	1.12 (0.73–1.70)	0.86 (0.53–1.43)	2.38 (1.07–6.35)*
Walk the companion animal (ref: no)	0.95 (0.56–1.67)	0.50 (0.25–1.04)	1.65 (0.84–3.57)	0.90 (0.40–2.17)	0.99 (0.48–2.19)	0.61 (0.22–1.87)	0.73 (0.44–1.26)	1.18 (0.55–2.70)	1.17 (0.81–1.72)	0.63 (0.34–1.22)	1.18 (0.87–1.60)	1.75 (1.10–2.77)*	1.14 (0.67–2.03)	0.39 (0.20–0.77)*
Walk and exercise (ref: no)	1.03 (0.68–1.55)	na	0.99 (0.62–1.58)	na	1.06 (0.63–1.80)	na	1.21 (0.83–1.77)	na	1.22 (0.93–1.60)	na	1.49 (1.20–1.86)*	na	0.91 (0.60–1.37)	na
Take out the garbage (ref: no)	1.02 (0.67–1.54)	1.16 (0.72–1.83)	0.96 (0.60–1.52)	1.30 (0.76–2.16)	1.23 (0.72–2.07)	1.12 (0.58–2.08)	0.92 (0.62–1.34)	1.03 (0.63–1.65)	1.14 (0.87–1.50)	1.21 (0.81–1.79)	0.91 (0.73–1.15)	0.96 (0.72–1.29)	0.90 (0.59–1.36)	0.70 (0.42–1.12)
Frequency of leaving the house (ref: Less than once a week or never)
1–2 times a week	1.30 (0.75–2.23)	0.72 (0.22–1.98)	1.00 (0.55–1.80)	0.54 (0.13–1.73)	1.14 (0.58–2.20)	2.20 (0.58–6.72)	1.34 (0.85–2.09)	1.60 (0.70–3.46)	0.87 (0.62–1.22)	1.68 (0.75–3.50)	1.31 (0.98–1.75)	0.97 (0.57–1.69)	1.23 (0.71–2.11)	2.25 (0.98–4.85)
3–6 times a week	0.86 (0.46–1.63)	1.21 (0.34–3.80)	1.78 (0.79–4.19)	0.79 (0.18–2.99)	2.06 (0.86–5.13)	4.96 (1.06–21.68)*	4.23 (2.14–8.85)*	1.95 (0.75–4.97)	1.15 (0.74–1.82)	1.20 (0.50–2.71)	1.39 (0.97–1.99)	0.73 (0.40–1.36)	0.88 (0.46–1.67)	2.12 (0.85–5.14)
Once a day	0.78 (0.40–1.54)	0.82 (0.22–2.69)	0.91 (0.42–2.01)	0.34 (0.08–1.30)	2.99 (1.08–9.36)*	2.22 (0.47–9.60)	3.07 (1.55–6.43)*	1.09 (0.39–2.98)	0.76 (0.48–1.22)	2.50 (0.91–6.87)	1.88 (1.28–2.78)*	1.43 (0.73–2.82)	1.03 (0.51–2.11)	2.27 (0.81–6.38)
Several times a day	1.62 (0.55–6.04)	3.23 (0.71–16.36)	0.96 (0.32–3.34)	0.58 (0.12–2.71)	4.71 (1.08–33.57)*	3.14 (0.48–20.86)	3.64 (1.36–11.75)*	1.23 (0.38–4.18)	0.88 (0.44–1.83)	1.57 (0.53–4.70)	1.80 (1.02–3.20)*	1.56 (0.73–3.35)	0.58 (0.24–1.52)	5.19 (1.57–18.12)*

^aOdds ratio (95% Confidence Interval); ^bcategories were merged due to small counts; bold and asterisk denotes significant association.