Table 3.

Stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles in cardiac protection

Source of Nanovesicles	Model	Protective Molecule in EVs	Mechanisms	References
Mesenchymal stem cells	Mice	Enriched with miR-22, miR-19a, miR-221	Reduce fibrosis, decrease apoptosis Cardioprotective effects Preserve ejection fraction	(89–91)
Cardiac progenitor cells	In vitro (HL1, H9c2 cell line) In vivo mice	Enriched with miR-210, miR-132	Prevent apoptosis in cardiomyocyte cell lines Reduce scar size and improve cardiac function	(61, 62, 65)
Cardiosphere cells	In vivo mice, porcine	Enriched with miR-146a, ncRNA like Y-RNA	Reduce fibrosis, improve cardiac function Decrease scar size Reduce inflammation and hypertrophy	(92–94)
Hematopoietic stem cells	In vitro In vivo mice	Enriched with miR-126, miR-130a Sonic hedgehog protein	Induce angiogenesis Increase capillary density, preserve ejection fraction	(95, 96)
Embryonic stem cells	In vivo mice	Enriched in miR-294	Promote cardiomyocyte survival Decrease oxidative stress, reverse cardiac remodeling	(97–100)

EV, extracellular vesicle.