TABLE 1.

Developmental studies assessing relations between sleep and cognition (ordered by age tested).

Cognitive Domain	Author/Ref	Age(s) Tested	Task Description	Sleep bout(s) considered	Experimental Manipulation?	Immediatea Post-Sleep Benefit?	Next-Day Benefit?	Extended (>24 hour) Benefit?
Declarative Memory	Seehagen et al. [13]	6 & 12mo	Deferred imitation	Nap & Overnight	Nap vs. No Nap vs. Baseline	Yes	Yes
	Friedrich et al. [14]	9–16mo	New word learning (specific exemplars)	Nap	Nap vs. No Nap	Yes
	Friedrich et al. [17]	14–17mo	Episodic memory (old vs. new objects)	Nap	Nap vs. No Nap	Yes
	Horvath et al. [15]	16mo	Object-word pair associations	Nap	Nap vs. No Nap	Yes
	Kurdziel et al. [7]	36–67mo	Visuospatial recall	Nap & Overnight	Nap vs. No Nap	Yes	Yes
	Lokhandwala et al. [18]	36–71 mo	Episodic recall (storybook paradigm)	Nap & Overnight	Nap vs. No Nap	Yes	Yes
	Williams & Horst [19]	3.5y	New word learning (storybook paradigm)	Nap, Overnight, 1wk later	Nap vs. No Nap	Yes	Yes	Yes
	Spanò et al. [39]	41–84mo	Word learning	Nap & Overnight	Nap vs. No Nap	Yes	Yes
	Henderson et al. [21]	7–12y	Word learning, visuospatial recall	Overnight, 1wk later	AM vs. PM learning	Yesb, but no comparison after sleep across groups	Yes (relative to own prior timepoint)	Yes (relative to own prior timepoint)
	Peiffer et al. [42]	7–12y, adults	Definition learning	Overnight	AM vs. PM learning groups	Yes, for children only
	Wilhelm et al. [41]	8–11y, adults	Declarative recall of motor sequences	Overnight	Nocturnal sleep vs. Daytime wake	Yes
	James et al. [23]	8–12y	New word learning (picture-naming, stem-completion, object-location)	Overnight	Nocturnal sleep vs. Daytime wake	Yes (night condition improved > day from 0–12hr)	Yesc (day condition improved > night from 12–24hr)	Yes (night condition improved > day relative to own baselines)
	Backhaus et al. [20]	9–12y	Word pair associations	Overnight	AM vs. PM learning	Yes, but no comparison after sleep across conditions	Yesd (relative to own baseline)
	Voderholzer et al. [29]	13–17y	Word pair associations	Overnight (multiple days)	Sleep restriction (5,6,7,8,9 hours)			No differences
	Kopasz et al. [28]	14–16y	Word pair associations	Overnight (multiple days)	Sleep restriction (4 hours vs. 9 hours)		No differences
	Hahn et al. [43]	14–18y	Word pair associations	Overnight	Wake (AM learning) vs. Sleep (PM learning)	Yes
	Cousins et al. [30]	15–18y	Picture Encoding	Overnight (multiple days)	Sleep restriction (5 hours vs. 9 hours)	Yes
	Lau et al.[25]	15–18y	Word pair associations, story recall, list learning	Nap	Nap vs. No Nap	Yese
	Holz et al. [27]	16–17y	Word pair associations	Overnight	Afternoon vs. Evening Learning		No	No differences
	Gais et al. [24]	17y	Novel word learning	Overnight	Multiple sleep-delay	Yes	Yes	Yes
	Leong et al. [26]	17y	Semantic categorization	Overnight	Wake vs. Sleep	Yes
Procedural Memory	Fagen & Rovee-Collier [46]	3 mo	Operant foot kicking	Not specified (total sleep time across 8 hours interval)	Observational (correlation btwn sleep duration and recall)	Yes
	Berger & Scher [47]	9–16mo	Tunnel task	Nap	Nap vs. No Nap	Yes
	Desrochers et al. [48]	33–71mo	Serial reaction time	Nap & Overnight	Nap vs. No Nap	No differences	Yes
	Wilhelm et al. [49]	4–6y	Motor sequence learning	Nap	Nap vs. No Nap × Standard vs. Extended training	Yesf
	Wilhelm et al. [22]	6–8y	Finger sequence tapping	Overnight	Nocturnal sleep vs. Daytime wake	No
	Fischer et al. [51]	7–11y	Serial reaction time	Overnight	Nocturnal sleep vs. Daytime wake	No
	Henderson et al. [21]	7–12y	Serial reaction time	Overnight, 1wk later	AM vs. PM Learning	No differences	No differences	No differences
	Prehn-Kristensen et al. [50]	10–13y	Mirror tracing	Overnight	Nocturnal sleep vs. Daytime wake	No differences
	Holz et al. [27]	16–17y	Finger sequence tapping	Overnight	Afternoon vs. Evening Learning		Yes	Yes
Generalization	Friedrich et al. [96]	6–8mo	Object-label generalization	Nap	Short vs. Long nap	Yesg
	Simon et al. [97]	6.5mo	Declarative retention of statistical learning	Nap	Nap vs. No Nap	Yes (block-specific)
	Friedrich et al. [14]	9–16mo	Object-label generalization	Nap	Nap vs. No Nap	Yes
	Konrad et al., [66]	12mo	Generalization of deferred imitation	Nap	Nap vs. No Nap	Yes
	Gómez et al. [64]	15mo	Artificial language	Nap	Nap vs. No Nap	Yes
	Hupbach et al. [65]	15mo	Artificial language	Nap & Overnight	Nap vs. No Nap		Yes
	Horváth et al. [98]	16mo	Object-label generalization	Nap	Nap vs. No Nap	Yes
	Werchan & Gomez [69]	2.5y	Noun learning	Nap	Nap vs. No Nap	No
	Werchan et al. [71]	29–36mo	Noun learning	Nap & Overnight	Nap/Overnight vs. No-Nap/Overnight vs. Nap Only	Unclear (no No-Nap Only group)	Yes
	Sandoval et al. [70]	3y	Verb learning	Nap & Overnight	Nap vs. No Nap		Yes
Emotional Cognition	Mindell et al. [77]	3–18mo	Social Emotional Assessment	Overall sleep patterns	Observational: Assessments at 6, 12, and 18mo			Yes
	Berger et al. [80]	2.5–3y	Emotion-eliciting task	Nap	Nap vs. No Nap	Yes
	Kurdziel et al. [78]	34–64mo	Emotional memory	Nap & Overnight	Nap vs. No Nap	No differences	Yes
	Cremone et al. [79]	3–5y	Dot Probe (Emotional Attention Bias)	Nap	Nap vs. No Nap	Yes
	Bolinger et al. [81]	8–11y	Emotional/Neutral pictures	Overnight	Nocturnal sleep vs. Daytime wake	Yes
	Vriend et al. [84]	8–12y	Affective response task (ART)	Overnight	Sleep restriction and extension	Yes
	Prehn-Kri stensen et al. [89]	9–12y	Emotional picture recognition	Overnight	Nocturnal sleep vs. Daytime wake	Yesh
	Prehn-Kri stensen et al. [50]	10–13y	Emotional recognition task	Overnight	Nocturnal sleep vs. Daytime wake	Yes
	Baum et al. [85]	14–17y	Mood and emotion regulation assessments	Overnight	Sleep restriction	Yes
	Short & Louca [86]	14–18y	Profile of Mood States	Overnight	Baseline vs. total sleep deprivation	Yes

Indicative of a sleep benefit

No sleep benefit or detriment

Indicative of sleep detriment

^a“Immediate” refers to recall ≤4hours after the first sleep bout. I.e., following a nap in nap+overnight protocols, in the morning following overnight protocols

^bA group effect was observed for the explicit word learning task, and group × timepoint interactions for both declarative tasks

^cOnly for picture-naming reaction time; no differences for picture-naming accuracy, stem-completion, or object-location tasks

^dWhile memory did not increase further after the wake interval, the boost resulting from overnight sleep remained

^eNap benefited story word-pair recall, but not for list learning

^fWith extended training

^gshort naps promoted surface-level associations; long nap promoted more semantically-based associations.

^hTypically developing children benefited from sleep, while those with ADHD did not.