TABLE 1.
Summary of cross-sectional studies examining the association between coffee consumption and metabolic syndrome in adults
| Authors (y) | Population | Country | Age, y | Diagnostic criteria1 | Dietary assessment tool | Cases/total participants, n/total n | Effect estimate (95% CI) | Confounders adjusted |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Grosso et al. (2014) (27)2 | Participants in a study on dietary habits and risk of CVD | Italy | 50.2 | IDF 2006 | FFQ (1 espresso cup = 35 mL) | 313/1889 | <1 cup/d: ref; ≥1 cup/d: 0.43 (0.27, 0.70) | Age, sex, BMI, education level, socioeconomic status, total energy intake, smoking status, alcohol intake, physical activity level, adherence to Mediterranean diet, caffeine intake, and source of caffeine |
| Grosso et al. (2015) (32) | Participants in the Polish arm of the HAPIEE study | Poland | 45–69 | IDF 2006 | FFQ (1 cup = 150 mL) | 2461/8821 | <1 cup/d: ref; 1–2 cups/d: 0.92 (0.82, 1.04); >2 cups/d: 0.75 (0.66, 0.86) | Age, sex, education level, occupation, physical activity, smoking status, alcohol intake, total energy intake, and tea intake |
| Kim et al. (2014) (30) | Participants in the KNHANES 2007–2011 without self-reported CVD and T2DM | South Korea | 19–65 | NCEP ATPIII | FFQ (1 cup/d = 133.3 mL/d) | Case: not reported; total participants: 17,953 | <1 cup/wk: ref; 1–6 cups/wk: 1.11 (0.90, 1.38); 1 cup/d: 1.28 (1.07, 1.53); 2 cups/d: 1.23 (1.02, 1.49); ≥3 cups/d: 1.25 (1.02, 1.53) | Age, sex, smoking status, physical activity, alcohol intake, total energy intake, education level, and income |
| Kim and Je (2018) (14) | Participants in the KNHANES 2012–2015 without self-reported dyslipid-emia, CVD, and T2DM | South Korea | 19–65 | IDF 2009 | FFQ (did not report serve size) | 1300/8387 | <1 cup/d: ref; 1–2 cups/d: 1.03 (0.84, 1.27); 3–4 cups/d: 0.75 (0.58, 0.97); ≥5 cups/d: 0.90 (0.64, 1.25) | Age, sex, income, education level, smoking status, alcohol, total energy intake, survey year, physical activity, BMI, sleep duration, intakes of soda, green tea, vegetables, red and white meat, legumes, fruit, whole grains, fish, nuts, alcohol, and dairy products |
| Micek et al. (2018) (16) | Participants of the Second National Multicenter Health Survey in Poland | Poland | ≥20 | IDF 2009 | FFQ (1 cup = 200 g) | 2116/5146 | 0 cup/d: ref; 0–1 cup/d: 0.91 (0.77, 1.08); 1–2 cups/d: 0.83 (0.72, 0.97); >2 cups/d: 0.83 (0.67, 1.03) | Age, sex, education level, occupation, physical activity, smoking status, alcohol intake, total energy intake, and tea consumption |
| Nordestgaard et al. (2015) (28) | Participants in the Copenhagen General Population Study | Denmark | ≥20 | Slightly modified from IDF 20093 | FFQ (did not report serve size) | 26,046/82,740 | 0 cup/d: ref; 0.1–1 cup/d: 0.91 (0.86, 0.97); 1.1–2 cups/d: 0.89 (0.84, 0.94); 2.1–3 cups/d: 0.88 (0.83, 0.93); 3.1–4 cups/d: 0.83 (0.78, 0.89); 4.1–5 cups/d: 0.84 (0.79, 0.90); >5 cups/d: 0.89 (0.83, 0.95) | Age, sex, smoking status, physical activity, and use of antihypertensive and lipid-lowering medication |
| Stutz et al. (2018) (15) | Participants of the Finnish Diabetic Nephropathy Study | Finland | 46.7 | IDF 2009 | FFQ (did not report serve size) | 670/1040 | <1 cup/d: ref; ≥1– <3 cups/d: 1.56 (0.86, 2.83); ≥3 to <5 cups/d: 1.76 (1.02, 3.06); ≥5 cups/d: 2.13 (1.17, 3.87) | Age, sex, energy intake, alcohol intake, physical activity, and smoking status |
| Takami et al. (2013) (29) | Participants of the J-MICC without histories of stroke or ischemic heart disease | Japan | 35–70 | NCEP ATPIII | FFQ (did not report serve size) | 114/577 | <1.5 cups/d: ref; ≥1.5–3 cups/d: 0.56 (0.33, 0.95); ≥3 cups/d: 0.55 (0.31, 0.94) | Age, sex, total energy intake, physical activity, and smoking and drinking habits |
| Matsuura et al. (2012) (33) | Adults of Kansai area, Japan | Japan | 20–65 | Japanese criteria | FFQ (did not report serve size) | Male: 372/2335; female: 32/948 | Male: 0 cup/d: ref; 1–3 cups/d: 0.85 (0.59, 1.20); ≥4 cups/d: 0.61 (0.39, 0.95); female: 0 cup/d: ref; 1–3 cups/d: 0.74 (0.29, 1.90); ≥4 cups/d: 0.48 (0.11, 2.09) | Age, alcohol intake, smoking status, and physical activity |
| Chang et al. (2012) (34)2,4 | Ambulatory males resided in Tianliao township, Taiwan | China | 65–98 | NCEP ATPIII | FFQ (did not report serve size) | 132/361 | Once/wk: ref; ≥ once/wk: 0.92 (0.27, 3.14) | Age, BMI, uric acid level, HOMA index, hsCRP level, occupation, lived with partner, literacy, alcohol and tea intake, smoking habit, and physical activity |
| Yen et al. (2006) (35)2,4 | Male participants of the Keelung Community-based Integrated Screening program | China | 30–79 | NCEP ATPIII modified for Asian subjects5 | FFQ (did not report serve size) | Case: not reported; total participants: 19,839 | Never: ref; ≥ once/wk: 1.02 (1.00, 1.05) | Age, betel-liquid chewing status, education level, physical activity, occupation, smoking habit, alcohol intake, dietary intake, family history of hypertension, CVD, and diabetes |
| Driessen et al. (2009) (31)2 | Participants of the Amsterdam Health and Growth Study | Netherlands | 36 | NCEP ATPIII | FFQ (1 cup = 125 mL) | 37/368 | Per cup increment: 0.96 (0.82, 1.13)6 | Sex, physical activity, total energy intake, smoking habit, alcohol intake |
| Shin et al. (2019) (17) | Participants of the Health Examinees Gem Study | South Korea | 40–69 | NCEP ATPIII | FFQ (did not report serve size) | Male: 12,701/43,682; female: 21,338/86,738 | Male: 0 cups/d: ref; <1 cup/day: 0.87 (0.80, 0.93); 1 cup/d: 0.85 (0.78, 0.93); 2–3 cups/d: 0.85 (0.78, 0.91); ≥4 cups/d: 0.79 (0.70, 0.90); female: 0 cups/d: ref; <1 cup/day: 0.94 (0.89, 0.99); 1 cup/d: 0.83 (0.78, 0.89); 2–3 cups/d: 0.87 (0.82, 0.93); ≥4 cups/d: 0.70 (0.62, 0.78) | Age, BMI, education, smoking status, alcohol drinker status, sugar intake with coffee or tea, total energy intake |
BP, blood pressure; CVD, cardiovascular disease; HAPIEE, Health, Alcohol and Psychosocial factors in Eastern Europe study; hsCRP, high sensitivity C-reactive protein; IDF, International Diabetes Federation; J-MICC, Japan Multi-Institutional Collaborative Cohort Study; KNHANES, Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; NCEP ATPIII, National Cholesterol Education Program – Adult Treatment Panel III; T2DM, type 2 diabetes mellitus; TG, triglycerides; WC, waist circumference.
IDF 2006 criteria consisted of the following: central obesity (WC ≥90 cm for men and ≥80 cm for women) and any 2 of the following: high TG (TG >1.7 mmol/L, or specific treatment of this lipid abnormality), low HDL cholesterol (HDL cholesterol <1.03 mmol/L for men, <1.29 mmol/L for women, or treatment of low HDL cholesterol), high BP (systolic BP >130 or diastolic BP >85 mmHg, or treatment of diagnosed hypertension), and high fasting glucose level (fasting plasma glucose >5.6 mmol/L, or previously diagnosed T2DM or require treatment of T2DM). IDF 2009 criteria consisted of the following: ≥3 of the following criteria: abdominal obesity (WC ≥90 cm for men and ≥80 cm for women), low HDL cholesterol (<1.0 mmol/L for men and <1.3 mmol/L for women), high TG (TG ≥1.7 mmol/L), high fasting glucose level (fasting plasma glucose ≥5.6 mmol/L), and high BP (systolic BP ≥130 or diastolic BP ≥85 mmHg). NCEP ATPIII criteria: ≥3 of the following: abdominal obesity (WC ≥90 cm for men and ≥80 cm for women), high fasting glucose level (fasting glucose ≥5.6 mmol/L), high TG (TG ≥1.7 mmol/L), low HDL cholesterol (HDL-cholesterol <1.0 mmol/L for men and <1.3 mmol/L for women), and high BP (systolic BP ≥130 mmHg or diastolic BP ≥85 mmHg). Japanese criteria: abdominal obesity (WC ≥85 cm in men or ≥90 cm in women) and ≥2 of the following components: high BP (systolic BP 130 ≥mmHg, diastolic BP ≥ 85 mmHg, or use of antihypertensive medication), dyslipidemia (TG ≥1.7 mmol/L or HDL cholesterol <1.03 mmol/L), and high fasting plasma glucose level (fasting plasma glucose level ≥6.1 mmol/L or use of antidiabetic medication).
Did not provide data for the medium consumption category.
The cut-offs of each individual condition were modified as follows: central obesity: WC ≥94 cm for men and ≥80 cm in women. High BP: systolic BP ≥130 mmHg or diastolic BP ≥85 mmHg or antihypertensive treatment. High TG: nonfasting plasma TG ≥1.7 mmol/L. Low HDL cholesterol: HDL cholesterol <1.0 mmol/L for men and <1.3 mmol/L for women. High glucose level: registry-based diagnosis of diabetes or self-reported diabetes or use of antidiabetic medication or nonfasting baseline glucose levels >11 mmol/L.
Coffee consumption is not the main exposure variable in this study.
This set of criteria is the same as NCEP ATPIII listed above, except the value of high fasting glucose was set at ≥6.1 mmol/L.
Not reported in the published article. Obtained from Marventano et al. (10)