TABLE 1.
Characteristics of the in vitro studies examining the efficacy of ASX treatment against lung diseases1
| Study | Year | Cell lines | Carcinogen | Dosage | Duration | Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wang et al. (42) | 2013 | MRC-5, A549 | TGF-β1 (5 ng/mL) | 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 μM | 48 h | ↓ Cell growth |
| ↑ E-cadherin, ↓ vimentin | ||||||
| ↑ Cell apoptosis, p53, ↓ Bcl-2 | ||||||
| Song et al. (43) | 2014 | RLE-6TN | Hydrogen peroxide (65 μM) | 8 μM | 6, 12, 24 h | ↑ Cell viability, ↓ cell apoptosis |
| ↑ SOD, catalase activity | ||||||
| ↑ Mitochondria morphology, ↑ MMP | ||||||
| ↓ Bad and Bax, ↑ Bcl-xl and Bcl-2 | ||||||
| ↓ Cytochrome c cytosolic translocation, ↓ caspase-9 and caspase-3 | ||||||
| ↑ Nrf2 | ||||||
| ↑ p53, ↓ PUMA | ||||||
| Zhang et al. (44) | 2015 | A549, MRC-5 | TGF-β1 (5 ng/mL) | 24 and 18 μg/mL for A549 and MRC-5 cells, respectively | 48 h | ↑ Cell apoptosis↑ Bax↑ Cytochrome c, Drp-1 |
| Wu et al. (45) | 2016 | A549 | NA | 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 μM | NR | ↓ Cell proliferation |
| ↑ Cell apoptosis | ||||||
| ↑ Bax | ||||||
| ↓ Bcl-2, STAT3, JAK1 | ||||||
| Ko et al. (46) | 2016 | A549, H1703 | NA | 2.5, 5, 10, 20 μM | 24, 48, 72 h | ↓ Cell viability |
| ↓ Rad51, AKT phosphorylation | ||||||
| ↓ Rad51 stability | ||||||
| Liao et al. (47) | 2016 | H1650, H1703 | NA | 5, 10, 20 μM | 3–24 h | ↓ Thymidylate synthase |
| ↓ Phospho-MEK1/2, phospho-ERK1/2 | ||||||
| ERK1/2 inactivation decreased thymidylate synthase by ubiquitin-26S proteasome-mediated proteolysis | ||||||
| ↓ Cell viability | ||||||
| Chen et al. (48) | 2018 | A549, H1975 | NA | 20 μM | 1–24 h | ↑ Erlotinib cytotoxicity |
| ↓ XPC expression in a time- and dose-dependent manner in erlotinib-treated cells | ||||||
| ↑ Phospho-MKK3/6 and phosphop38 MAPK protein concentrations | ||||||
| Cai et al. (41) | 2019 | Mouse primary peritoneal macrophage | LPS (dosage NR) | 10, 25, 50, 100, 200 μM | 1 h | Cell survival did not differ. 10 μM ASX ↓ apoptotic cells, TNF-α and IL-6 secretion↓NF-κB p65 in the nuclear |
| Nian et al. (38) | 2019 | RAW264.7 | LPS (1 μM) | 5, 10, 20 μM | 1 h | 10 and 20 μM ASX ↓ NO, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β |
| 20 μM ASX ↓ iNOS protein concentration |
ASX, astaxanthin; Bax, Bcl-2–associated X; bcl-xl, B cell lymphoma–extra large; Drp-1, dynamin-related protein-1; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; JAK, Janus kinase; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; MEK, meiotic chromosome axis–associated kinase; MKK, mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase; MMP, matrix metalloproteinase; NA, not available; NR, not reported; Nrf2, nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2; PUMA, anti-p53-up-regulated modulator of apoptosis; RLE-6TN, rat lung epithelial-T-antigen negative; SOD, superoxide dismutase; STAT-3, signal transducers and activators of transcription-3; TGF-β1, transforming growth factor-β1; XPC, xeroderma pigmentosum complementation group C.