Fig. 5.

Pathological immune mechanisms in ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI). The mechanisms of hepatic IRI are complex and result in a series of cellular responses influencing inflammatory, metabolic, and antioxidant pathways.¹³³ Tissue hypoxia, oxidative stress, and the resulting anaerobic cell metabolism lead to structural cellular injury and a large amount of chemokine and cytokine release to enhance downstream immune cell accumulation. ATP adenosine triphosphate, IL interleukin, ROS reactive oxygen species, IRI ischemia-reperfusion injury, IFN-γ interferon-gamma, ICAM intercellular adhesion molecule, VCAM vascular cell adhesion molecule, TNF tumor necrosis factor, HGF hepatocyte growth factor, VEGF vascular endothelial growth factor