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. 2021 May 31;11:11319. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-90288-2

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Quantification of hyphopodia and arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization in P. vulgaris PvTOR-RNAi roots. (A) Number of hyphopodia per transgenic root of control and PvTOR-RNAi bean plants at 6 wpi with R. irregularis. The statistical significance of differences between control and PvTOR-RNAi roots was determined using an unpaired two-tailed Student’s t-test (***P < 0.001). Error bars refer to the SD of the mean of three biological replicates (n > 30). (B) Total and arbuscular colonization levels in control and PvTOR-RNAi transgenic roots. The composite plants were harvested at 1, 3, and 6 wpi and mycorrhizal colonization parameters were quantified. Error bars refer to the SD of the mean of three biological replicates (n > 30). (C–D) Micrograph of R. irregularis-inoculated transgenic roots showing hyphopodia (arrowhead) and arbuscules in (C) empty vector (control) and (D) PvTOR-RNAi roots at 6 wpi. Insets show magnifications of an arbuscule containing cell (red-dashed regions). wpi, week(s) post inoculation; h, hyphopodia.