Figure 5.

Malic enzymes 1 and 3 produce NADPH. Mitochondrial malic enzyme 3 can generate NADPH by converting malate into pyruvate. Malate can also exit from the TCA cycle where it is converted into pyruvate by malic enzyme 1, resulting in the production of NADPH. The TCA-cycle intermediate citrate can be transported into the cytosol where it is converted into acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate by ATP-citrate lyase (ACLY). The latter is converted into malate to produce NADPH by malic enzyme 1. PC, pyruvate carboxylase; PDH, pyruvate dehydrogenase.