Table 1.

Study characteristics

Authors (year)	Country	Intervention	Participants	Outcome measures	Key results
Als, Nadel, Cooper, Vickers, and Garralda (2015)	UK	Psychoeducational handbook provided within 7 days of discharge from hospital, outlining possible psychological reactions in children and parents; emotional and behavioural recovery, and getting back to normal; plus a telephone call within 14 days of receiving the handbook, addressing the family’s post-discharge experience, reinforcing the psychoeducational material and encouraging parents to put the advice into practice Comparison group: Treatment as usual (TAU)	Parents of children aged 4–16 admitted to paediatric intensive care unit Intervention: n = 22; mean age 43; 24% male TAU: n = 9; mean age 36; 17% male	Impact of Events Scale; Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; Parental Stressor Scale: Paediatric Intensive Care Unit Measures completed at baseline and 3–6 months follow-up Comments on feasibility and acceptability of intervention – unclear at what point these were collected	All parents said they had read the handbook. At follow-up, parents who received the intervention reported lower post-traumatic stress and depressive symptoms (small effect sizes) but there was little difference in anxiety scores (effect size <0.2). All evaluated the handbook as useful; most (82%) deemed it appropriately timed. Additional comments collated from parents in the intervention group indicated that the handbook made them feel more prepared for life after PICU (82%) and less anxious or concerned (77%). Almost half (47%) had shared it with others.
Bugg, Turpin, Mason, and Scholes (2008)	UK	Information booklet on symptoms of traumatic stress and advice on recovery strategies, provided one month post-injury Comparison group: information booklet plus a one-hour appointment where they received instructions for writing plus three writing exercises on consecutive days, where they were asked to write about their emotions, thoughts and feelings relating to their injury	Traumatic injury patients at risk of developing PTSD (i.e. scored 50+ on the Acute Stress Disorder Scale within a month after injury) Psychoeducation: n = 36; mean age 38.14; 55.6% female; 19.4% had experienced assault, 75% a road traffic accident and 5.6% an occupational injury Writing: n = 31; mean age 36.65; 90.3% female; 16.1% had experienced assault and 83.9% a road traffic accident	Post-Traumatic Diagnostic Scale; Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; World Health Organization Quality of Life Measure, brief version Measures completed before reading the booklet and then at 3 months and 6 months post-injury Usefulness of booklet and whether they had put any of the strategies into practice, measured at 3-month post-intervention	Both groups rated booklet as useful: 72.2% of bookley-only group rated the section on psychological sequelae as moderately, very or extremely useful, compared to 67.8% of writing group. 74.9% of booklet-only group rated the coping strategies section as useful compared to 67.8% in writing group. There were significant improvements on measures of anxiety, depression and PTSD over time. Differences between groups on these measures were not statistically significant.
Ehlers et al. (2003)	UK	Approximately 4 weeks after the accident, participants received a 64-page self-help booklet called Understanding Your Reactions To Trauma, based on principles of CBT, with an additional 4-page booklet focusing on common avoidance behaviours and safety-seeking behaviours; clinicians met patients for 40 minutes to explain the booklet and motivate them to follow its advice Comparison groups: 1) 12 weekly sessions of cognitive therapy; 2) group who received repeated assessments only (regular monitoring but no treatment)	Motor vehicle accident survivors with PTSD Psychoeducation: n = 28; cognitive therapy: n = 28; repeated assessments: n = 29 Age not reported; gender not reported	Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (PDS) and Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) to measure PTSD; Beck Anxiety Inventory; Beck Depression Inventory; Sheehan Disability Scale If participants had a PDS score below 14, CAPS global severity rating below 2, and Beck Depression/Anxiety Inventory scores below 12 they were defined as having ‘high end-state functioning’. Study-specific scale to measure treatment credibility Assessed post-treatment and 6 months later	Both groups rated the booklet as highly logical, were moderately confident it would be helpful, and were confident about recommending it to a friend. The cognitive therapy group showed significantly better outcomes at posttreatment and follow-up. Repeated assessments and booklet-only groups did not significantly differ at either time point. On 2 measures, high end-state functioning at follow-up and request for treatment, the outcome for the self-help group was worse than for the repeated assessments group.
Mouthaan et al. (2011)	Netherlands	Trauma TIPS: a 30-minute online intervention based on CBT techniques of psychoeducation, stress management/relaxation techniques, and in vivo exposure. It consists of 6 steps, including introduction to the programme and basic operating instructions; assessments of acute anxiety and arousal; video features of the trauma centre’s surgical head explaining the procedures at the centre and the purpose of the programme, and of 3 patients sharing their experiences after their injury; a short textual summary of 5 coping tips for common physical and psychological reactions after trauma; audio clips with instructions for stress management techniques; contact information for programme assistance or professional help for enduring symptoms; and a forum for peer support	5 trauma patients v 5 healthy controls Trauma patients: mean age 34.4; 4 males and 1 female; 4 had experienced road traffic accidents and 1 had experienced a workplace accident Controls: mean age 34.6; 4 males and 1 female	State Trait Anxiety Inventory; Impact of Event Scale-Revised Study-specific scale assessing feasibility of and satisfaction with the intervention, within 24 hours of intervention Measures completed immediately prior to the intervention, immediately following the intervention, 24 hours after intervention, and one month post-trauma	Participants rated the intervention as useful and clear. Although all mean scores of the patients decreased with time, no significant differences were found between any of the mean scores on posttraumatic stress symptoms.
Mouthaan et al. (2013)	Netherlands	Trauma TIPS: see above for description (provided one week post-injury) Comparison group: TAU	Injury patients suffering possible severe injuries who had experienced a potentially traumatic event Intervention: n = 151; mean age 44.18; 58.9% male TAU: n = 149; mean age 43.49; 61.1% male	Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale; Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview; Impact of Event Scale-Revised; Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale Assessments were 1, 3, and 12 months post-injury	PTSD symptoms decreased over time with no significant difference between the intervention group and control group. Moreover, there were no differences between groups with respect to the number of PTSD and depression diagnoses and with respect to the severity of depression and anxiety at 12 months.
Rose, Brewin, Andrews, and Kirk (1999)	UK	Educational leaflet about normal post-traumatic reactions and where/when to find help Comparison groups: 1) one-hour debriefing where participants gave a detailed account of their trauma encompassing facts, cognitions and feelings, plus educational leaflet; 2) assessment only	Victims of a violent crime within the past month (n = 157 at baseline, n = 138 at 6-month follow-up, n = 92 at 11-month follow-up) Psychoeducation: n = 52; mean age 34.9; 39 males and 13 females Debriefing: n = 54; mean age 35.4; 37 males and 17 females Assessment only: n = 51; mean age 37.3	Post-traumatic Symptom Scale; Impact of Event Scale; Beck Depression Inventory Measures taken at baseline, 6-month follow-up and 11-month follow-up	All groups improved over time, but there were no between-group differences.
Scholes, Turpin, and Mason (2007)	UK	Self-help booklet providing information about the psychological sequelae of trauma and structured proactive advice based on cognitive behavioural strategies Comparison group: control group (no booklet)	Patients attending an accident and emergency department; those who scored 50+ on the Acute Stress Disorder Scale were randomized to either intervention or high-risk control group while those scoring below this were assigned to a low-risk control group for comparison Intervention: n = 116 (baseline), n = 60 (post-intervention), n = 49 (follow-up); mean age 37.62; 56.9% female; 64.66% experienced road traffic accident, 25% assault, 10.33% occupational injury High-risk control: n = 111 (baseline), n = 65 (post-intervention), n = 50 (follow-up); mean age 35.61; 45.95% female; 65.76% experienced road traffic accident, 29.73% assault, 4.5% occupational injury Low-risk control: n = 120 (baseline), n = 75 (post-intervention), n = 67 (follow-up); mean age 38.55; 32.5% female; 55.83% experienced road traffic accident, 11.67% assault, 32.5% occupational injury	Post-Traumatic Diagnostic Scale; Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; World Health Organization Quality of Life Measure, brief version Assessments completed at baseline (within 1-month post-injury) and 3- and 6-months post-injury 3 months post-intervention, participants asked to rate usefulness of intervention	PTSD, anxiety and depression decreased across time but there were no group differences in these measures or quality of life. However, subjective ratings of the usefulness of the self-help booklet were very high. Participants from the intervention group were asked to rate sections of the booklet on a scale of 1 (not useful) to 5 (extremely useful). Out of 60 completers, 52 rated the section on psychological sequelae, resulting in a mean rating of 3.60 (SD = 0.87), with 94.23% rating it 3 or above and 51.92% rating it ‘very’ or ‘extremely’ useful. Fifty participants rated the section on coping strategies, resulting in a mean rating of 3.70 (SD = 0.89); 94% rated it 3 or above, with 60% rating it ‘very’ or ‘extremely’ useful.
Turpin, Downs, and Mason (2005)	UK	8-page self-help booklet called ‘Responses to traumatic injury’ which explains and normalizes common physiological, psychological and behavioural reactions to traumatic injury; provides advice on non-avoidance and emotional support; gives information on seeking further help Comparison group: no booklet	Patients attending an accident and emergency department with injuries sustained by road traffic accidents, occupational injury or assault Intervention: n = 75 (baseline), n = 54 (follow-up); mean age 39.74; 45% female; 16% experienced assault, 40% experienced occupational injury, 44% experienced a road traffic accident Control: n = 67 (baseline), n = 46 (follow-up); mean age 37.42; 54% female; 24% experienced assault, 42% experienced occupational injuries, 34% experienced a road traffic accident	Post-Traumatic Diagnostic Scale; Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale Assessments at 2, 10–12 and 24–26 weeks At 24–26 weeks, participants in intervention group rated its usefulness and completed some open questions about their experiences	PTSD), anxiety and depression decreased with time but there were no group differences in PTSD or anxiety. The controls were less depressed at follow-up. There was a reduction in PTSD caseness within the control (50%) compared with the intervention (20%) group which was almost significant. Overall, 66% deemed the booklet useful. When asked what was particularly helpful, 16 people (47%) referred to information and advice and 11 people (32%) the normalization of reactions.
Wijesinghe et al. (2015)	Sri Lanka	15-minute psychoeducation involving discussion about the patient’s opinion on the causes and consequences of the snake bite, and important thoughts to elicit, such as myths, negative assumptions, and future plans and expectations of the patient Comparison groups: 1) one group who received no intervention; 2) one group who received psychoeducation plus a 20-minute cognitive behavioural intervention one month later Interventions took place on discharge from hospital	Snakebite victims with systemic envenoming Psychoeducation: n = 65; mean age 41.3; 76% male No intervention: n = 68; mean age 42.5; 73.3% male Psychoeducation + cognitive behavioural intervention: n = 69; mean age 40.2; 74.7% male	Hopkins Symptom Checklist; modified version of the Beck Depression Inventory; Sheehan Disability Inventory; Post-traumatic Stress Symptom Scale-Self Report Measures taken 6 months post-discharge from hospital	At follow-up, there was a decreasing trend in the proportion of patients who were positive for psychiatric symptoms of depression and anxiety from controls (26.5%) through psychoeducation group (13.8%) to cognitive intervention group (8.7%). This decreasing trend was statistically significant (Chi square test for trend = 7.901, p = 0.005). However, there was no difference in the proportion of patients diagnosed with depression between the three groups and the intervention also had no effect on post-traumatic stress disorder. Depression was diagnosed in 21/68 (30.9%) controls, 17/65 (26.2%) psychoeducation participants and 18/69 (26.1%) patients who received the cognitive intervention. These rates did not show a statistically significant trend (chi square for trend = 0.391, p = 0.532). However, on further analysis, the rate of severe depression was significantly higher in controls. The proportion of patients with PTSD was 7/68 (10.3%) in controls, compared to 8/65 (12.3%) psychoeducation patients and 2/69 (2.9%) cognitive intervention patients which was not statistically significant (Chi-square for trend = 2.448; p = 0.118)
Wong, Marshall, and Miles (2013)	USA	18-minute psychoeducational video on post-traumatic distress and factors related to the mental health treatment seeking process, based on the model of self-regulation Comparison group: 10-minute wound care video on medical treatment for lacerations, the healing process, and home care	Trauma care centre patients receiving care following hospitalization for a serious physical injury Psychoeducation: n = 52 (baseline), n = 42 (follow-up); mean age 28.8; 17.3% female Wound care group: n = 47 (baseline), n = 37 (follow-up); mean age 33.7; 14.9% female	PTSD Checklist; Knowledge of PTSD Test; Beliefs about Psychotherapy Scale; and Beliefs about Psychotropic Medication Scale completed immediately after viewing video and at one-month follow-up; at follow-up, participants also asked about mental health service use and self-recognition of PTSD symptoms	Immediately after viewing the video, participants exhibited greater knowledge of PTSD symptoms and more positive beliefs about mental health treatment than those in the wound care condition. At 1-month follow-up, however, these differences were no longer maintained. No significant differences in PTSD were found between the intervention and control groups. Differences in self-recognition of PTSD nearly reached significance with psychoeducation participants being more likely to recognize symptoms as mental health problems.