Table 3.
Estimated gaze to faces across age for all outcome groups from negative binomial mixed-effects modelsa
| Cohort 1 – Mullen | Cohort 2 – Play Interaction | |||||
| ASD | Non-TD | TD | ASD | Non-TD | TD | |
| M (95% CI) | M (95% CI) | M (95% CI) | M (95% CI) | M (95% CI) | M (95% CI) | |
| Gaze to Faces | ||||||
| 6 months | 3.04 (2.52–3.66)b | 3.62 (3.20–4.09) | 4.07 (3.64–4.56)d | 5.17 (4.11–6.51) | 5.12 (4.11–6.38) | 6.01 (5.27–6.85) |
| 9 months | 2.84 (2.41–3.35)b,c | 3.58 (3.24–3.95)d | 4.03 (3.71–4.39)d | – | – | – |
| 12 months | 2.53 (2.16–2.96)b,c | 3.37 (3.05–3.71)d | 3.80 (3.50–4.12)d | 5.39 (4.59–6.33)b,c | 6.95 (6.08–7.94)d | 6.62 (6.05–7.25)d |
| 15 months | 2.17 (1.85–2.54)b,c | 3.06 (2.78–3.38)b,d | 3.46 (3.18–3.75)c,d | – | – | – |
| 18 months | 1.84 (1.56–2.16)b,c | 2.74 (2.48–3.03)d | 3.10 (2.85–3.37)d | 3.44 (2.95–4.01)b,c | 6.69 (5.92–7.56)d | 6.41 (5.88–6.98)d |
| 24 months | 1.35 (1.11–1.65)b,c | 2.26 (1.99–2.56)d | 2.56 (2.30–2.85)d | 2.04 (1.62–2.58)b,c | 5.47 (4.65–6.43)d | 5.93 (5.30–6.63)d |
| 36 months | 1.35 (1.02–1.79)b,c | 2.82 (2.28–3.34)d | 3.20 (2.79–3.69)d | 3.07 (2.43–3.87)b,c | 4.52 (3.77–5.43)bd | 6.32 (5.59–7.15)c,d |
| Estimate (SE) | Estimate (SE) | Estimate (SE) | Estimate (SE) | Estimate (SE) | Estimate (SE) | |
| Within-Group Differences | ||||||
| 12 vs 6 months | −0.18 (0.06)** | −0.07 (0.05) | −0.07 (0.05) | 0.04 (0.13) | 0.30 (0.12)* | 0.10 (0.07) |
| 24 vs 12 months | −0.62 (0.08)*** | −0.40 (0.06)*** | −0.39 (0.05)*** | −0.97 (0.15)*** | −0.24 (0.11)* | 1.32 (0.50)** |
| 36 vs 24 months | −0.01 (0.08) | 0.22 (0.06)*** | 0.22 (0.05)*** | 0.41 (0.14)** | −0.19 (0.10) | 0.06 (0.06) |
| 36 vs 6 months | −0.81 (0.16)*** | −0.25 (0.10)* | −0.24 (0.08)** | −0.52 (0.16)** | −0.13 (0.14) | 0.05 (0.08) |
Note. ASD = Autism Spectrum Disorder, TD = Typically Developing, Non-TD = Non-Typically Developing, M = mean, CI = confidence interval, SE = standard error.
Gaze to faces are estimated on the original scale from negative binomial mixed-effects regression models with fixed effects for outcome group (ASD, Non-TD, TD), linear, quadratic and cubic age (in years, centered at 6 months), and interactions between age effects up to cubic term and group and random effects for child-specific intercept and linear slope. Within-group differences are estimated on the log scale.
Indicates significant difference (p < .05) from TD group.
Indicates significant difference (p < .05) from Non-TD group.
Indicates significant difference (p < .05) from ASD group.
p < .05
p < .01
p < .001