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Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling and its regulation. BMP signals are mediated by type I and II BMP receptors and their downstream molecules Smad 1, 5, and 8. Phosphorylated Smad 1, 5, and 8 proteins form a complex with Smad 4 and are then translocated into the nucleus where they interact with other transcription factors such as Runx2 in osteoblasts. BMP signaling is regulated at different molecular levels [51]. Reproduced with permission of GROWTH FACTORS
