Table 1.

Synergetic Mechanisms of Vitamin C, D, E, A, and Zinc on Immune System.

Immune system	Vitamin C	Vitamin D	Vitamin E	Vitamin A	Zinc
Barriers	Collagen synthesis for stabilization of epithelial barriers	Maintenance of mucosal junction integrity, proliferation or maturation of keratinocyte, formation of permeability barrier in the skin	Collagen synthesis for stabilization of epithelial barriers	Formation and protection of epithelium and mucus integrity (epithelial keratinization, stratification, differentiation, and functional maturation of epithelial cells)	Cellular proliferation (thickness maintenance)
Innate immunity	Stimulate leukocyte functions, stimulate neutrophil and monocyte movement, protect neutrophils against ROS- induced damage, improve chemotaxis, enhance killing and phagocytosis, enhance production of interferon	Improve chemotaxis and phagocytic capabilities, produce antimicrobial proteins (defensin β2, cathelicidin, LL-37), modulate cytokine, induce regulatory T cells	Stimulate leukocyte functions, protect neutrophils against ROS- induced damage especially of neutrophil and monocyte movement, enhance killing and phagocytosis, enhance production of interferon	Regulate the differentiation, maturation, and function of macrophages and neutrophils, enhance killing and phagocytosis	Enhance phagocytosis of macrophages and neutrophils, activate Natural Killer cell, generate the oxidative burst, activate complement, modulate cytokine
Adaptive immunity	Regulate the proliferation of B- and T-cell differentiation and interaction	Regulate the proliferation of B- and T-cell differentiation and interaction	Regulate the proliferation of B- and T-cell differentiation and interaction, balance of Th1 and Th2	Regulate the proliferation of B- and T-cell differentiation and interaction including induce T cell migration	Regulate the proliferation of stem cells, B- and T-cell differentiation and interaction, balance of Th1 and Th2