TABLE 2.
Health and dietary characteristics at baseline and follow-up and the population mean changes over 1 school year among adolescent schoolgirls in the Northern and Volta regions of Ghana
| Characteristic | Baseline | Follow-up | Difference1 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | Estimate (95% CI)2 | n | Estimate (95% CI)2 | Estimate (95% CI) | P value | |
| Health | ||||||
| Anemia, % | 363 | 25.1 (21.8–28.4) | 255 | 19.6 (16.5–22.8) | − 5.4 (−8.8 to −2.1) | 0.001 |
| Hemoglobin concentration, g/dL | 1521 | 12.7 (12.6–12.8) | 1387 | 12.9 (12.8–13.0) | 0.2 (0.1–0.3) | 0.001 |
| Positive malaria rapid diagnostic test, % | 504 | 26.1 (22.9–29.3) | 210 | 8.4 (6.6–10.3) | − 17.7 (−21.0 to −14.4) | <0.001 |
| Thinness (BMIZ < −2 SD), % | 23 | 1.0 (0.3–1.6) | 20 | 0.8 (0.3–1.3) | − 0.2 (−0.7 to 0.3) | 0.484 |
| Overweight (+1 SD < BMIZ ≤ +2 SD), % | 221 | 18.9 (15.8–22.0) | 211 | 20.0 (16.7–23.3) | 1.1 (−1.5 to 3.7) | 0.405 |
| Obesity (BMIZ > +2 SD), % | 32 | 3.0 (1.7—4.3) | 35 | 3.4 (1.9–48) | 0.3 (−0.4 to 1.1) | 0.377 |
| Practice geophagy (eating soil or clay), % | 450 | 26.8 (23.5–30.0) | 301 | 23.3 (19.8–26.7) | − 3.5 (−7.6 to 0.6) | 0.095 |
| Diet (consumption in previous 24 hours) | ||||||
| Rich source of heme iron,3 % | 264 | 17.3 (14.4–20.1) | 370 | 24.0 (20.7–27.2) | 6.7 (2.6–10.8) | 0.001 |
| Fair source of heme iron,4 % | 1137 | 71.3 (67.7–74.9) | 1142 | 78.6 (75.1–82.0) | 7.2 (2.7–11.8) | 0.002 |
| Rich source of nonheme iron,5 % | 1033 | 66.8 (63.2–70.4) | 1115 | 71.9 (68.2–75.7) | 5.2 (0.2–10.1) | 0.042 |
| Foods and beverages fortified with iron,6 % | 449 | 41.6 (37.8–45.3) | 605 | 54.1 (50.2–58.1) | 12.6 (8.0–17.1) | <0.001 |
| Citrus fruits,7 % | 483 | 23.7 (20.6–26.8) | 579 | 34.5 (30.8–38.2) | 10.8 (6.1–15.6) | <0.001 |
Proportions and means are weighted to be representative of all eligible girls in the school. Follow-up occurred 9 months after baseline. Abbreviation: BMIZ, BMI-for-age z-score.
Differences are mean differences or prevalence differences. The 95% CIs and P values are based on Rao-Scott chi-square tests and ANOVA with Taylor series variance estimates to account for the complex sampling design. BMIZ was determined by the International Obesity Task Force reference population.
Values are means or % (95% CIs).
Red meats, such as beef, lamb, goat, or wild game and organ meats.
Other animal-source foods, including eggs, poultry, and fish.
Dark green leafy vegetables, legumes, nuts, and seeds.
Cereal and beverages fortified with iron Milo, Ovaltine, Cerelac, Yumvita, or Nido.
Citrus fruits, including oranges, lemons, pineapple, mango, etc.