Table 1.
Beneficial and Harmful effect of SCFAs on DKD in vivo and vitro.
| Supplement | Animal/Cell Type | Mechanism | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| SCFAs (acetate, butyrate, propionate) | Mouse glomerular mesangial cells (SV40-MES-13) | (+) GPR 43; oxidative stress (ROS↓, MDA↓, SOD↑) ↓; inflammation (ICAM-1↓, MCP-1↓, IL-1β↓) ↓ |
(26) |
| High-fiber diet, SCFAs (acetate, butyrate, propionate) |
C57BL/6, Gpr43-/- and Gpr109A-/- mice; Mouse kidney tubular epithelial cells and podocytes; |
(+) GPR43 and GPR109A; IL-6↓, IFNγ↓, CCL2↓, CXCL10↓; fibronectin↓, TGFβ↓ |
(23) |
| SCFAs (acetate, butyrate, propionate) |
C57BL/6 mice; Mouse glomerular mesangial cells (SV40-MES-13) |
(+) GPR43-β-arrestin-2 signaling; oxidative stress (ROS↓) ↓; NF-κB inflammatory signaling↓ |
(27) |
| NaB | SD rats | (-) HDACs; eNOS↓, iNOS↓; α-SMA↓, collagen I↓, fibronectin↓, TGF-β1↓; NF-κB↓; apoptosis↓; DNA damage↓ |
(22) |
| NaB | C57BL/6 and Nrf2-/- mice | (-) HDACs; (+) NRF2 |
(28) |
| NaB | Human renal glomerular endothelial cells | (-) caspase 1-GSDMD canonical pyroptosis pathway; (-) NF-κB/IκB-α signaling pathway |
(29) |
| NaB | db/db and db/m mice; Mouse mesangial cells (SV40-MES-13) |
(-) micro7a-5p/P311/TGF-β1 pathway | (30) |
| NaB | Normal rat kidney tubular epithelial (NRK−52E) cells | (-) HDAC2; oxidative stress (ROS↓, SOD↑, LDH↓) ↓ |
(20) |
(+), active; (-), inhibit; SCFA, short−chain fatty acids; NaB, sodium butyrate; GPR 43, G-protein-coupled receptor 43; HDAC, histone deacetylase; NRF2, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; GSDMD, gasdermin D; ROS, reactive oxygen species; MDA, Malondialdehyde; SOD, superoxide dismutase; ICAM-1, intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1; MCP-1, monocyte chemotactic protein-1; IL-1β, interleukin-1 β; IL-6, interleukin-6; TGFβ, transforming growth factor-β; eNOS, endothelial nitric oxide synthase; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; α-SMA, α-smooth muscle actin; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase.