Table 17.

Summary of evidence from population-based studies for factors potentially associated with constipation

Category	Factor	Association with constipation
Demographic	Age	Conflicting data, probably only > 70 yr
	Female gender	Associated
	Income level	Conflicting data, probably country specific
	Educational level	Conflicting data, probably country specific
	Residential location	Associated
	Work status	Conflicting data
	Marital status	Conflicting data
	Ethnicity	Possible association
Lifestyle	Physical activity	Associated
	Fibre	No evidence for low fibre
	Fluid	Possible association
	Smoking	Conflicting data
	Alcohol	No clear evidence
	Coffee	No association
Health-related	Self-rated health	Associated
	Obesity	Conflicting data
	Depression	Associated
	Anorectal	Associated – haemorrhoids and other conditions
	Gastrointestinal	Associated
	Neurological	Associated – MS, Parkinson’s disease
	Endocrine	Associated - diabetes
	Cardiovascular	Associated
	Musculoskeletal	Associated
	Surgery	Associated – gynaecological, anorectal, abdominal
	No. of medications	Possible association
	NSAIDs	Associated
	Aspirin	Associated
	Other drugs	Possible association

NSAIDs: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; MS: Multiple sclerosis.