Table 2.
Study population | Treatment, dose and duration | Research outcomes | Mechanism of action | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Adults with newly diagnosed rheumatoid arthritis and no diabetes (n=1127, aged ≥18 years) | HCQ (6.5 mg/kg or 400 mg/day) | Risk of diabetes: ↓ | - | 33 |
SLE patients with newly diagnosed diabetes mellitus (n=221) | HCQ (cumulative dose ≥ 129 g) | Risk of diabetes: ↓ | - | 34 |
Patients with prediabetes (n=20; aged 45.9 ± 7.32 years) | HCQ (6.5 mg/kg/day, 12 weeks) | Insulin: ↑, OGTT: ↓ | - | 35 |
Patients with diabetes mellitus (n=45, aged 61 ± 13 years) | HCQ (dose not mentioned, >12 weeks) | HbA1c: ↓ | - | 36 |
Patients with T2DM (n=10; aged 43-61 years) | CQ (250 mg, four times daily, 3 days) | FBG: ↓, fasting plasma insulin: ↑ | - | 37,38 |
Patients with T2DM (n=135; aged 18-65 years) | HCQ (400 mg/day, 24 weeks) | HbA1c: ↓, FBG: ↓, postprandial glucose: ↓ | - | 39 |
Sulfonylurea-refractory patients with poorly controlled T2DM (n=69; aged 35-80 years) | HCQ (300 mg/day, 6 months) | HbA1c: ↓, glucose tolerance: ↑ | - | 40 |
Patients with T2DM failing metformin and sulfonylurea (n=15; aged 18-75 years) | HCQ (400 mg/day, 4 months) | HbA1c: ↓, FBG: ↓ | - | 41 |
Obese, non-diabetic subjects (n=13; aged 24-71 years) | HCQ (6.5 mg/kg/day, 6 weeks) | ISI: ↑, HOMA-IR: ↓ | CRP: ↔, IL-6: ↔ | 42 |
Overweight or obese subjects with one or more markers of insulin resistance (n=17; aged 50.1 ± 14.5 years) | HCQ (400 mg/day, oral, 13 ± 1 weeks) | Insulin sensitivity: ↑, β-cell function: ↑, FBG: ↓, HbA1c: ↓ | Adiponectin: ↑ | 43 |
Patients with primary dyslipidaemia (n=127; aged 49.21 ± 9.58 years) | HCQ (200 mg/day) + atorvastatin (10 mg/day), 24 weeks | HbA1c: ↓, FBG: ↓ | hs-CRP: ↓ | 44 |
Patients with MetS (n=25; aged 18-60 years) | Placebo (3 weeks) → CQ (80 mg/week, 3 weeks) → CQ (80 mg/day, 3 weeks) → CQ (250 mg/day, 3 weeks) | Hepatic glucose production: ↓, hepatic insulin sensitivity: ↑, FBG: ↓, OGTT: ↔ | TNF-α: ↓, CRP: ↔, leptin: ↔, adiponectin: ↔ | 45 |
Patients with MetS (n=56; aged 18-70 years) | CQ (80 mg/day, 1 year) | OGTT: ↔, HOMA-IR: ↔, ISI: ↔ | p-JNK: ↓ | |
Women with SLE (n=71; aged 49.8 ± 9.9 years) | HCQ (400 mg, duration not mentioned) | FBG: ↓, HOMA-IR: ↓ | - | 46 |
Women with rheumatoid arthritis (n=31; aged 56.5 ± 9.0 years) | HCQ (200 mg, duration not mentioned) | FBG: ↓ | - | |
Patients with SLE or rheumatoid arthritis(n=26; aged 46 ± 16 years) | HCQ (mean daily dose: 284.6 ± 67.5 mg, 5-6 months) | HbA1c: ↓ | - | 47 |
Patients with rheumatoid arthritis without diabetes (n= 23; aged 56 ± 11.4 years) | HCQ (6.5 mg/kg/day, 8 weeks) | ISI: ↔, HOMA-IR: ↔ | - | 48 |
Abbreviations: CQ, chloroquine; CRP, C-reactive protein; FBG, fasting blood glucose; HbA1c, glycated haemoglobin; HCQ, hydroxychloroquine; HOMA-IR, homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance; hs-CRP, high sensitivity C-reactive protein; IL-6, interleukin-6; ISI, insulin sensitivity index; MetS, metabolic syndrome; OGTT, oral glucose tolerance test; p-JNK, phosphorylated c-Jun N-terminal kinase; SLE, systemic lupus erythematosus; TNF-α, tumour necrosis factor-alpha; T2DM, type 2 diabetes mellitus; ↑, increase/stimulate; ↓, decrease/inhibit; ↔, no change.