Table 1.
Epigenetic modifications induced by glyphosate, glyphosate-based herbicides (GBH) and amino methylphosphonic acid (AMPA).
| Compound | Modification | Tissue/Cell | Main Effects |
|---|---|---|---|
| Humans | |||
| Glyphosate | DNA methylation (33) | PBMC | Decrease global 5mC percentage Increase methylation of p53 promoter |
| Glyphosate | DNA methylation (34) | PBMC | Decrease global 5mC percentage Change methylation pattern of p21 and p53 promoters Alter the expression genes involved in regulation of cell cycle (CCND1, p16, P21, and P53) and apoptosis (BCL2) |
| Glyphosate | DNA methylation (35) | MCF10A cells | DNA hypomethylation occurring via TET pathway Changes in methylation patterns of MTRNRL2 and DUX4 genes Exposure to glyphosate and miRNA 182-5p induced tumor development in 50% mice TET inhibitor prevents tumor formation in glyphosate-miR 182-5p-cells |
| AMPA and Glyphosate | DNA methylation and histone modification (36) | PBMC | Changes in the expression of DNMT1 and HDAC3 by glyphosate and AMPA Changes in the expression of DMNT3A by glyphosate |
| AMPA | DNA methylation (36) | PBMC | Decrease global 5mC percentage Change methylation pattern of p21 and p53 promoters Increase the expression of CCND1 |
| Rodents | |||
| GBH | DNA methylation (37) | Rat mammary gland | Alter mammary gland development Decrease ERα protein and mRNA expression (transcripts OS, O, OT, and E1) Changes in methylation patterns of ERα promoters in post-puberal animals |
| GBH | DNA methylation and histone modification (38) | Rat uterus | Increase ERα mRNA during pre-implantation period Increase the relative abundance of ERα-O transcript variant Alter methylation status and histone post-transductional modifications in the O promoter of ERα gene. |
| GBH | miRNA (39) | Mouse brain (PFC) | 55 upregulated and 19 downregulated miRNAs Alter Wnt/β-catenin and Notch pathways |
| GBH | circRNA (40) | Mouse brain (Hip) | 330 upregulated and 333 downregulated circRNAs |
| Glyphosate | DNA methylation (41) | Rat sperm | Increase pathologies in F2 and F3 (prostate, ovarian and kidney diseases, obesity, birth abnormalities, and tumor growth) DMRs in sperm |
| Glyphosate | DNA methylation and histone modification (42) | Rat sperm | DMRs and DHRs in F3 generation. |
DHRs, Differential histone retention sites; DMRs, Differential DNA methylation sites; DNMT, DNA methyltransferase; HDAC, histone deacetylase; PBMCs, Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells; PFC, Prefrontal Cortex; Hip, Hippocampus.