Table 1.

Studies suggesting a causal relationship between the gut microbiota and NAFLD.

Ref	Study model	Treatment	Diet	Main results
128	8-week-old male germ-free (GF) C57BL/6 J mice	Received the microbiota from obese human donor before or after a dietary weight loss program	Normal chow diet for 4 weeks	Development of liver steatosis in mice received from donor before dietary weight loss program. High hepatic TGs and total cholesterol in mice received the microbiota from donor before weight loss program.
129	8-week-old male GF C57BL/6 J mice	Received the microbiota from mice developed hyperglycemia or normoglycemia after 16 weeks of high fat diet (HFD)	60% kcal HFD for 16 weeks after colonization.	High hepatic DNL and steatosis, abundant Barnesiella and Roseburia genera in mice colonized from hyperglycemia mice. No differences in SCFAs, but increased levels of branched-chain fatty acids.
130	8-week-old GF C57BL/6 J mice	Conventionalization with normal mice	Normal chow diet for 4 weeks	High induction of hepatic lipogenesis in conventionalization compared with GF.
131	6 to 8-week-old GF C57BL/6 J mice		39% and 32.8% (wt) high-fat, high-sucrose diet or normal chow diet with 30% fructose water for 8 weeks	Elevated hepatic TG in high fat, sucrose fed group and high fructose-fed group compared with GF.
132	GF C57BL/6 N mice	Antibiotics	Normal chow diet	Desaturated and elongated hepatic long-chain fatty acids in antibiotics treated mice.
133	6-week-old C57BL/6 J mice	Antibiotics	30% fructose water for 8 weeks	Reduced hepatic lipid accumulation in fructose-fed mice treated with antibiotics.
134	8 to 12-week-old male C57BL/6 J mice	Oral gavage of cecum content obtained from chow- or HFD-fed mice with bile duct ligation	60% kcal HFD or normal chow diet for 4 weeks	Reduced ratio between Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes in mice received from HFD. Enhanced liver damage in mice received from HFD.
135	4-week-old male GF C57BL/6 J mice	Inoculation of Bacteroidetes or Firmicutes	60% kcal HFD for 16 weeks	High hepatic lipid, levels of hepatic FAS, SCD1, and DGAT2 in firmicutes-treated mice.
136	4-week-old male C57BL/6 J mice		40% (wt) fructose diet for 7 weeks	Induction of fatty livers. Increased proteobacteria and colonic actinobacteria. Increased blood propionate and butyrate.
137	5-week-old male 129S6 mice		40% kcal HFD for 15 weeks	NAFLD caused by conversion of choline into methylamines by the microbiota. Lower plasma phosphatidylcholine and higher urinary excretion of methylamines.
138	8-week-old male C57BL/6 J mice		Methionine choline-deficient diet for 4 weeks	Increased NASH with liver fibrosis. Decreased Bifidobacterium and increased Bacteroides. Increased cholic acid, cholesterol, arachidic acid, and stearic acid in feces during NASH development.