Fig. 3.

Wolf presence reduces the frequency of DVCs through changes in deer abundance and behavior. (A) The “net effect” occurs through changes in both mechanisms. (B) The “behavioral effect” occurs through changes in deer behavior only. Subtracting B from A provides the “population effect,” which occurs through changes in deer abundance only. (A and B) Model 2 excludes three counties with wolf exit at some point during the period. Model 3 excludes 13 counties that never have wolf presence (nonwolf counties) on the boundary of counties that have wolf presence for at least 1 y during the study period (wolf counties). SEs clustered at the county level.