Figure 3.

Model performance characteristics for conventional heart rate, heart rate analyzed by deep learning, and the raw photoplethysmography (PPG) waveforms analyzed by deep learning. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC), measured in the test set, is reported for each of the 3 models. The green line represents the conventional logistic regression model fed the root mean square of successive differences, a conventional assessment of heart rate variability. The blue line represents the long short-term memory model fed a heart rate data series. The red line represents the deep learning model (a convolutional-recurrent neural network) fed the raw PPG waveform data.