Table 2. Univariable and multivariable analysis of factors associated with hookworm infection.
| Census (n = 140932) | LMC (n = 6089) | Hookworm infected (n = 1012) | Univariable | Multivariable | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | OR (95%CI) | p | mOR (95%CI) | p | |
| Individual factors | |||||||
| Age | |||||||
| Infants (<1 year) | 1750 (1.2) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | ||||
| PSAC (1–4 years) | 8482 (6.0) | 1179 (19.4) | 31 (2.6) | 1 | <0.001 | 1 | <0.001 |
| SAC (5–14 years) | 21839 (15.5) | 1305 (21.4) | 87 (6.7) | 3.3 (2.0, 5.4) | 3.8 (2.3,6.3) | ||
| Adult (15+ years) | 108861 (77.2) | 3605 (59.2) | 894 (24.8) | 27.2 (15.3, 48.3) | 21.4 (12.3, 37.2) | ||
| Sex* | |||||||
| Male | 70295 (49.9) | 2836 (46.6) | 460 (16.2) | 1 | 0.215 | ||
| Female | 70620 (50.1) | 3252 (53.4) | 552 (17.0) | 1.1 (0.9, 1.3) | |||
| Lived there most of past 6 months | |||||||
| Yes | 137144 (97.3) | 6041 (99.2) | 1006 (16.7) | 1 | 0.037 | ||
| No | 3788 (2.7) | 48 (0.8) | 6 (12.5) | 0.3 (0.1, 0.9) | |||
| Slept there last night | |||||||
| Yes | 133153 (94.5) | 5975 (98.1) | 992 (16.6) | 1 | 0.225 | ||
| No | 7779 (5.5) | 114 (1.9) | 20 (17.5) | 0.7 (0.4, 1.3) | |||
|
Wearing shoes during survey† | |||||||
| No | - | 3273 (54.8) | 609 (18.6) | 1 | 0.899 | ||
| Yes | - | 2698 (45.2) | 390 (14.5) | 1.0 (0.8, 1.2) | |||
| Dewormed in last 12 months† | |||||||
| No | - | 4963 (83.1) | 942 (19.0) | 1 | <0.001 | 1 | <0.001 |
| Yes | - | 1008 (16.9) | 57 (5.7) | 0.2 (0.1, 0.2) | 0.3 (0.2,0.5) | ||
| Household factors | |||||||
| Population density ‡ | |||||||
| <50 | 6750 (4.8) | 262 (4.3) | 79 (30.1) | 1 | 0.416 | ||
| 50–249 | 70424 (50.0) | 3091 (50.8) | 648 (21.0) | 0.9 (0.6, 1.3) | |||
| 250–999 | 55013 (39.1) | 2386 (39.2) | 268 (11.2) | 0.9 (0.6, 1.4) | |||
| > = 1000 | 8956 (6.1) | 344 (5.7) | 16 (4.7) | 0.5 (0.2, 1.2) | |||
| Family size | |||||||
| < = 4 members | 71670 (50.9) | 2899 (47.6) | 556 (19.5) | 1 | <0.001 | ||
| > = 5 members | 69262 (49.2) | 3190 (52.4) | 446 (14.0) | 0.6 (0.5, 0.7) | |||
| Farming household§ | |||||||
| No | 75470 (56.1) | 3235 (55.5) | 571 (17.7) | 1 | 0.082 | ||
| Yes | 59027 (43.9) | 2590 (44.5) | 414 (16.0) | 1.2 (1.0, 1.4) | |||
| Livestock possession | |||||||
| No | 78179 (55.5) | 3344 (54.9) | 446 (13.3) | 1 | 0.197 | ||
| Yes | 62753 (44.5) | 2745 (45.1) | 566 (20.6) | 1.1 (0.9, 1.3) | |||
| Highest education level of any female family member¶ | |||||||
| No education | 38426 (27.5) | 1509 (25.0) | 463 (30.7) | 1 | <0.001 | ||
| Some primary | 18894 (13.5) | 812 (13.5) | 143 (17.6) | 0.7 (0.6, 1.0) | |||
| Some middle | 24089 (17.3) | 1091 (18.1) | 139 (12.7) | 0.5 (0.3, 0.6) | |||
| Some secondary | 27731 (19.9) | 1318 (21.9) | 141 (10.7) | 0.4 (0.3, 0.5) | |||
| Some higher secondary / college |
30451 (21.8) | 1301 (21.6) | 112 (8.6) | 0.3 (0.2, 0.4) | |||
| Highest education level of household head# | |||||||
| No education | 46198 (33.0) | 1835 (30.4) | 500 (27.3) | 1 | <0.001 | 1 | <0.001 |
| Some primary | 25705 (18.4) | 1121 (18.6) | 167 (14.9) | 0.6 (0.5, 0.8) | 0.7 (0.6, 1.0) | ||
| Some middle | 26124 (18.7) | 1186 (19.6) | 158 (13.3) | 0.5 (0.4, 0.7) | 0.7 (0.5, 0.9) | ||
| Some secondary | 27900 (19.9) | 1267 (21.0) | 129 (10.2) | 0.4 (0.3, 0.5) | 0.6 (0.5, 0.8) | ||
| Some higher secondary / college | 14112 (10.1) | 634 (10.5) | 49 (7.7) | 0.3 (0.2, 0.4) | 0.4 (0.3, 0.6) | ||
| Household floor** | |||||||
| Natural materials | 16334 (11.6) | 708 (11.7) | 220 (31.1) | 1 | 0.004 | ||
| Manmade materials | 124437 (88.4) | 5370 (88.4) | 791 (14.7) | 0.7 (0.5, 0.9) | |||
| SES (1 = Low, 5 = High) | |||||||
| 1 | 23884 (16.9) | 937 (15.4) | 364 (38.9) | 1 | <0.001 | 1 | <0.001 |
| 2 | 26674 (18.9) | 1100 (18.1) | 228 (20.7) | 0.5 (0.4, 0.7) | 0.6 (0.4, 0.8) | ||
| 3 | 27545 (19.5) | 1251 (20.6) | 165 (13.2) | 0.4 (0.3, 0.6) | 0.6 (0.4, 0.8) | ||
| 4 | 30689 (21.8) | 1424 (23.4) | 147 (10.3) | 0.3 (0.2, 0.5) | 0.4 (0.3, 0.6) | ||
| 5 | 32140 (22.8) | 1377 (22.6) | 108 (7.8) | 0.2 (0.2, 0.3) | 0.3 (0.2, 0.5) | ||
| Water source | |||||||
| Unimproved facilities | 5937 (4.2) | 265 (4.4) | 116 (43.8) | 1 | 0.213 | ||
| Improved facilities | 134995 (95.8) | 5824 (95.7) | 896 (15.4) | 0.8 (0.5, 1.2) | |||
| Sanitation facilities | |||||||
| Unimproved facilities | 92216 (65.4) | 3968 (65.2) | 821 (20.7) | 1 | <0.001 | ||
| Improved facilities | 48716 (34.6) | 2121 (34.8) | 191 (9.0) | 0.6 (0.5, 0.8) | |||
| Handwashing facility§§ | |||||||
| No | - | 3687 (66.3) | 734 (19.9) | 1 | <0.001 | ||
| Yes | - | 1873 (33.7) | 195 (10.4) | 0.6 (0.5, 0.7) | |||
| Environmental factors | |||||||
| Mean normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI)‡ | |||||||
| First tertile | 47073 (33.4) | 1959 (32.2) | 268 (13.7) | 1 | 0.031 | 1 | 0.007 |
| Second tertile | 46850 (33.3) | 2059 (33.9) | 332 (16.1) | 1.4 (1.1, 1.7) | 1.5 (1.2, 2.0) | ||
| Third tertile | 46860 (33.3) | 2065 (34.0) | 411 (19.9) | 1.4 (1.1, 1.8) | 1.4 (1.1, 1.9) | ||
| Mean of middle infrared (MIR)‡ | |||||||
| First tertile | 47136 (33.5) | 2056 (33.8) | 424 (20.6) | 1 | 0.175 | ||
| Second tertile | 46761 (33.2) | 2071 (34.1) | 328 (15.8) | 0.8 (0.6, 1.1) | |||
| Third tertile | 46886 (33.3) | 1956 (32.2) | 259 (13.2) | 0.8 (0.6, 1.0) | |||
| Elevation‡ | |||||||
| First tertile | 47036 (33.4) | 2053 (33.8) | 245 (11.9) | 1 | <0.001 | 1 | <0.001 |
| Second tertile | 47455 (33.7) | 2014 (33.1) | 151 (7.5) | 1.0 (0.6, 1.6) | 0.9 (0.6, 1.5) | ||
| Third tertile | 46292 (32.9) | 2016 (33.1) | 615 (30.5) | 4.2 (2.4, 7.2) | 3.9 (2.3, 6.8) | ||
| Sand fraction‡ | |||||||
| First tertile | 50457 (35.8) | 2436 (40.1) | 313 (12.9) | 1 | 0.177 | ||
| Second tertile | 50588 (35.9) | 1643 (27.0) | 193 (11.8) | 0.8 (0.7, 1.1) | |||
| Third tertile | 39738 (28.2) | 2004 (32.9) | 505 (25.2) | 1.1 (0.8, 1.5) | |||
| Soil acidity (pH KCL)‡ | |||||||
| First tertile | 66905 (47.5) | 2656 (43.7) | 605 (22.8) | 1 | 0.289 | ||
| Second tertile | 28233 (20.1) | 1596 (26.2) | 167 (10.5) | 0.8 (0.6, 1.1) | |||
| Third tertile | 45645 (32.4) | 1831 (30.1) | 239 (13.1) | 0.8 (0.5, 1.2) | |||
*1 missing value
†118 missing values
‡ 6 missing values
§ 264 missing values
¶ 58 missing values and not included in the multivariable model as education of the head of the household was included
# 46 missing values
**11 missing values
§§529 missing values, not included in the multivariable model due to high number of missing values
Natural flooring includes earth, dung, palm or bamboo and stone; Man-made flooring includes wood, brick, vinyl or asphalt strips, tiles, cement, carpet and polished stone like marble or granite
Improved water source refers to limited and basic facilities, Unimproved refers to surface water and unimproved facilities
Improved sanitation refers to limited and basic facilities, Unimproved refers to open defaecation and unimproved facilities
Acronyms: LMC- Longitudinal Monitoring Cohort, OR–odds ratio, mOR–multivariable OR, 95% CI—95% confidence interval