Table 2.
Categories of severity of anxiety, depression, insomnia, and acute stress in late-middle-aged adults stratified by pandemic-related factors.
| Depressiona | Anxietyb | Insomniac | Acute stressd | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Participants, no. (%) | Participants, no. (%) | Participants, no. (%) | Participants, no. (%) | ||||||||||||
| Variables | Normal | Mild | Moderate to severe | pe | Normal | Mild | Moderate to severe | pe | Normal | Mild | Moderate to severe | pe | Normal | Stressed | pe |
| Overall | 2,969 (79.6) | 473 (12.7) | 288 (7.7) | 2,719 (72.9) | 688 (18.4) | 323 (8.7) | 2,703 (72.5) | 820 (22.0) | 207 (5.5) | 29,39 (78.8) | 791 (21.2) | ||||
| Gender | 0.912 | 0.422 | 0.119 | 0.283 | |||||||||||
| Male | 1,355 (79.5) | 223 (13.1) | 126 (7.4) | 1,253 (73.5) | 305 (17.9) | 146 (8.6) | 1,256 (73.7) | 364 (21.4) | 84 (4.9) | 1,356 (79.6) | 348 (20.4) | ||||
| Female | 1,614 (79.9) | 250 (12.3) | 162 (8.0) | 1,466 (72.4) | 383 (18.9) | 177 (8.7) | 1,447 (71.4) | 456 (22.5) | 123 (6.1) | 1,583 (78.1) | 443 (21.9) | ||||
| Living area | 0.081 | 0.123 | 0.224 | 0.427 | |||||||||||
| Urban | 2,891 (79.8) | 456 (12.6) | 276 (7.6) | 2,648 (73.1) | 663 (18.3) | 312 (8.6) | 2,631 (72.6) | 796 (22.0) | 196 (5.4) | 2,858 (78.9) | 765 (21.1) | ||||
| Rural | 78 (72.9) | 17 (15.9) | 12 (11.2) | 71 (66.4) | 25 (23.4) | 11 (10.3) | 72 (67.3) | 24 (22.4) | 11 (10.3) | 81 (75.7) | 26 (24.3) | ||||
| Level of education | 0.136 | 0.086 | 0.839 | 0.587 | |||||||||||
| Less than college | 961 (78.2) | 160 (13.0) | 108 (8.8) | 874 (71.1) | 235 (19.1) | 120 (9.8) | 888 (72.3) | 269 (21.9) | 72 (5.9) | 962 (78.3) | 267 (21.7) | ||||
| College degree or higher | 2,008 (80.3) | 313 (12.5) | 180 (7.2) | 1,845 (73.8) | 453 (18.1) | 203 (8.1) | 1,815 (72.6) | 551 (22.0) | 135 (5.4) | 1,977 (79.0) | 524 (21.0) | ||||
| Marital status | 0.122 | 0.407 | 0.011 | 0.878 | |||||||||||
| Married | 2,739 (79.9) | 428 (12.5) | 261 (7.6) | 2,505 (73.1) | 632 (18.4) | 291 (8.5) | 2,503 (73.0) | 739 (21.6) | 186 (5.4) | 2,700 (78.8) | 728 (21.2) | ||||
| Unmarried | 230 (76.2) | 45 (14.9) | 27 (8.9) | 214 (70.9) | 56 (18.5) | 32 (10.6) | 200 (66.2) | 81 (26.8) | 21 (7.0) | 239 (79.1) | 63 (20.9) | ||||
| Monthly family income, ¥f | 0.001 | <0.001 | 0.278 | < 0.001 | |||||||||||
| 0–4,999 | 687 (77.4) | 123 (13.9) | 78 (8.8) | 615 (69.3) | 181 (20.4) | 92 (10.4) | 638 (71.8) | 200 (22.5) | 50 (5.6) | 677 (76.2) | 211 (23.8) | ||||
| 5,000–11,999 | 1,366 (78.4) | 226 (13.0) | 150 (8.6) | 1,253 (71.9) | 329 (18.9) | 160 (9.2) | 1,248 (71.6) | 396 (22.7) | 98 (5.6) | 1,350 (77.5) | 392 (22.5) | ||||
| ≥ 12,000 | 916 (83.3) | 124 (11.3) | 60 (5.5) | 851 (77.4) | 178 (16.2) | 71 (6.5) | 817 (74.3) | 224 (20.4) | 59 (5.4) | 912 (82.9) | 188 (17.1) | ||||
| History of chronic disease | 0.178 | 0.021 | <0.001 | 0.132 | |||||||||||
| Yes | 696 (77.7) | 124 (13.8) | 76 (8.5) | 648 (72.3) | 166 (18.5) | 82 (9.2) | 598 (66.7) | 232 (25.9) | 66 (7.4) | 692 (77.2) | 204 (22.8) | ||||
| No | 2,179 (80.3) | 331 (12.2) | 202 (7.4) | 1,995 (73.6) | 489 (18.0) | 228 (8.4) | 2,028 (74.8) | 558 (20.6) | 126 (4.6) | 2,157 (79.5) | 555 (20.5) | ||||
| Unknown | 94 (77.0) | 18 (14.8) | 10 (8.2) | 76 (62.3) | 33 (27.0) | 13 (10.7) | 77 (63.1) | 30 (24.6) | 15 (12.3) | 90 (73.8) | 32 (26.2) | ||||
| History of psychiatric disorders | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | 0.002 | |||||||||||
| Yes | 3 (27.3) | 4 (36.4) | 4 (36.4) | 3 (27.3) | 4 (36.4) | 4 (36.4) | 5 (45.5) | 2 (18.2) | 4 (36.4) | 5 (45.5) | 6 (54.5) | ||||
| No | 2,946 (79.8) | 466 (12.6) | 278 (7.5) | 2,700 (73.2) | 679 (18.4) | 311 (8.4) | 2,685 (72.8) | 808 (21.9) | 197 (5.3) | 2,916 (79.0) | 774 (21.0) | ||||
| Unknown | 20 (69.0) | 3 (10.3) | 6 (20.7) | 16 (55.2) | 5 (17.2) | 8 (27.6) | 13 (44.8) | 10 (34.5) | 6 (20.7) | 18 (62.1) | 11 (37.9) | ||||
| Family history of psychiatric disorders | 0.059 | 0.022 | 0.240 | 0.511 | |||||||||||
| Yes | 16 (69.6) | 4 (17.4) | 3 (13.0) | 13 (56.5) | 9 (39.1) | 1 (4.3) | 16 (69.6) | 4 (17.4) | 3 (13.0) | 19 (82.6) | 4 (17.4) | ||||
| No | 2,930 (79.8) | 466 (12.7) | 276 (7.5) | 2,686 (73.1) | 672 (18.3) | 314 (8.6) | 2,666 (72.6) | 807 (22.0) | 199 (5.4) | 2,895 (78.8) | 777 (21.2) | ||||
| Unknown | 23 (65.7) | 3 (8.6) | 9 (25.7) | 20 (57.1) | 7 (20.0) | 8 (22.9) | 21 (60.0) | 9 (25.7) | 5 (14.3) | 25 (71.4) | 10 (28.6) | ||||
| Are you a frontline worker? | 0.014 | 0.009 | 0.041 | 0.086 | |||||||||||
| Yes | 389 (75.5) | 70 (13.6) | 56 (10.9) | 351 (68.2) | 105 (20.4) | 59 (11.5) | 354 (68.7) | 129 (25.0) | 32 (6.2) | 391 (75.9) | 124 (24.1) | ||||
| No | 2,580 (80.2) | 403 (12.5) | 232 (7.2) | 2,368 (73.7) | 583 (18.1) | 264 (8.2) | 2,349 (73.1) | 691 (21.5) | 175 (5.4) | 2,548 (79.3) | 667 (20.7) | ||||
| Have any of your family members or friends been infected with COVID-19? | 0.122 | 0.304 | 0.162 | 0.019 | |||||||||||
| Yes | 19 (67.9) | 3 (10.7) | 6 (21.4) | 18 (64.3) | 5 (17.9) | 5 (17.9) | 17 (60.7) | 8 (28.6) | 3 (10.7) | 17 (60.7) | 11 (39.3) | ||||
| No | 2,950 (79.7) | 470 (12.7) | 282 (7.6) | 2,701 (73.0) | 683 (18.4) | 318 (8.6) | 2,686 (72.6) | 812 (21.9) | 204 (5.5) | 2,922 (78.9) | 780 (21.1) | ||||
| Are any of your family members or friends frontline workers? | 0.641 | 0.077 | 0.017 | 0.439 | |||||||||||
| Yes | 922 (79.1) | 147 (12.6) | 96 (8.2) | 827 (71.0) | 226 (19.4) | 112 (9.6) | 814 (69.9) | 288 (24.7) | 63 (5.4) | 909 (78.0) | 256 (22.0) | ||||
| No | 2,047 (79.8) | 326 (12.7) | 192 (7.5) | 1,892 (73.8) | 462 (18.0) | 211 (8.2) | 1,889 (73.6) | 532 (20.7) | 144 (5.6) | 2,030 (79.1) | 535 (20.9) | ||||
| Are you in Hubei Province now? | 0.003 | < 0.001 | 0.108 | 0.008 | |||||||||||
| Yes | 103 (70.1) | 24 (16.3) | 20 (13.6) | 85 (57.8) | 39 (26.5) | 23 (15.6) | 98 (66.7) | 40 (27.2) | 9 (6.1) | 103 (70.1) | 44 (29.9) | ||||
| No | 2,866 (80.0) | 449 (12.5) | 268 (7.5) | 2,634 (73.5) | 649 (18.1) | 300 (8.4) | 2,605 (72.7) | 780 (21.8) | 198 (5.5) | 2,836 (79.2) | 747 (20.8) | ||||
| Are you back to work now? | 0.187 | 0.353 | 0.343 | 0.342 | |||||||||||
| Absent from work | 828 (80.0) | 117 (11.3) | 90 (8.7) | 764 (73.8) | 176 (17.0) | 95 (9.2) | 745 (72.0) | 222 (21.4) | 68 (6.6) | 803 (77.6) | 232 (22.4) | ||||
| Always at work | 527 (78.0) | 96 (14.2) | 53 (7.8) | 486 (71.9) | 128 (18.9) | 62 (9.2) | 476 (70.4) | 160 (23.7) | 40 (5.9) | 536 (79.3) | 140 (20.7) | ||||
| Not back to work | 608 (77.8) | 110 (14.1) | 63 (8.1) | 553 (70.8) | 155 (19.8) | 73 (9.3) | 564 (72.2) | 178 (22.8) | 39 (5.0) | 606 (77.6) | 175 (22.4) | ||||
| Back to work | 1,006 (81.3) | 150 (12.1) | 82 (6.6) | 916 (74.0) | 229 (18.5) | 93 (7.5) | 918 (74.2) | 260 (21.0) | 60 (4.8) | 994 (80.3) | 244 (19.7) | ||||
| Are you likely to be exposed to other people at work? | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | 0.504 | < 0.001 | |||||||||||
| Exposed to patients infected with COVID-19 | 75 (62.0) | 26 (21.5) | 20 (16.5) | 66 (54.5) | 34 (28.1) | 21 (17.4) | 80 (66.1) | 31 (25.6) | 10 (8.3) | 78 (64.5) | 43 (35.5) | ||||
| Exposed to patients with other diseases | 63 (79.7) | 9 (11.4) | 7 (8.9) | 60 (75.9) | 14 (17.7) | 5 (6.3) | 57 (72.2) | 20 (25.3) | 2 (2.5) | 63 (79.7) | 16 (20.3) | ||||
| Exposed to general people | 796 (81.8) | 115 (11.8) | 62 (6.4) | 723 (74.3) | 178 (18.3) | 72 (7.4) | 714 (73.4) | 217 (22.3) | 42 (4.3) | 799 (82.1) | 174 (17.9) | ||||
| Not at work, work at home, or without exposure to people at work | 1,884 (80.7) | 296 (12.7) | 154 (6.6) | 1,731 (74.2) | 423 (18.1) | 180 (7.7) | 1,706 (73.1) | 493 (21.1) | 135 (5.8) | 1,853 (79.4) | 481 (20.6) | ||||
| Do you live in a community that restricts people's access? | 0.435 | 0.277 | 0.327 | 0.704 | |||||||||||
| Yes | 2,729 (79.4) | 445 (13.0) | 261 (7.6) | 2,496 (72.7) | 640 (18.6) | 299 (8.7) | 2,482 (72.3) | 759 (22.1) | 194 (5.6) | 2,704 (78.7) | 731 (21.3) | ||||
| No | 240 (81.4) | 28 (9.5) | 27 (9.2) | 223 (75.6) | 48 (16.3) | 24 (8.1) | 221 (74.9) | 61 (20.7) | 13 (4.4) | 235 (79.7) | 60 (20.3) | ||||
| Were there any traffic restrictions in your area during the pandemic? | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | 0.003 | 0.006 | |||||||||||
| Yes | 1,935 (77.7) | 351 (14.1) | 203 (8.2) | 1,767 (71.0) | 482 (19.4) | 240 (9.6) | 1,765 (70.9) | 580 (23.3) | 144 (5.8) | 1,929 (77.5) | 560 (22.5) | ||||
| No | 1,034 (83.3) | 122 (9.8) | 85 (6.8) | 952 (76.7) | 206 (16.6) | 83 (6.7) | 938 (75.6) | 240 (19.3) | 63 (5.1) | 1,010 (81.4) | 231 (18.6) | ||||
| Have you ever experienced quarantine? | < 0.001 | <0.001 | 0.001 | < 0.001 | |||||||||||
| Yes | 545 (73.9) | 108 (14.7) | 84 (11.4) | 492 (66.8) | 148 (20.1) | 97 (13.2) | 498 (67.6) | 181 (24.6) | 58 (7.9) | 546 (74.1) | 191 (25.9) | ||||
| No | 2,424 (81.0) | 365 (12.2) | 204 (6.8) | 2,227 (74.4) | 540 (18.0) | 226 (7.6) | 2,205 (73.7) | 639 (21.3) | 149 (5.0) | 2,393 (80.0) | 600 (20.0) | ||||
| Are you highly concerned about the COVID-19 pandemic? | 0.004 | 0.364 | 0.363 | 0.004 | |||||||||||
| Yes | 2,809 (80.1) | 437 (12.5) | 262 (7.5) | 2,563 (73.1) | 645 (18.4) | 300 (8.6) | 2,548 (72.6) | 768 (21.9) | 192 (5.5) | 2,781 (79.3) | 727 (20.7) | ||||
| No | 160 (72.1) | 36 (16.2) | 26 (11.7) | 156 (70.3) | 43 (19.4) | 23 (10.4) | 155 (69.8) | 52 (23.4) | 15 (6.8) | 158 (71.2) | 64 (28.8) | ||||
| Do you have a good understanding of the COVID-19 pandemic? | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | |||||||||||
| Yes | 2,681 (80.9) | 398 (12.0) | 233 (7.0) | 2,449 (73.9) | 593 (17.9) | 270 (8.2) | 2,431 (73.4) | 705 (21.3) | 176 (5.3) | 2,645 (79.9) | 667 (20.1) | ||||
| No | 288 (68.9) | 75 (17.9) | 55 (13.2) | 270 (64.6) | 95 (22.7) | 53 (12.7) | 272 (65.1) | 115 (27.5) | 31 (7.4) | 294 (70.3) | 124 (29.7) | ||||
COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019.
a
Scores of 5–9 on the Patient Health Questionnaire−9 were defined as mild depression, and scores of ≥ 10 were defined as moderate-to-severe depression.
b
Scores of 5–9 on the Generalized Anxiety Disorder−7 were defined as mild anxiety, and scores of ≥ 10 were defined as moderate-to-severe anxiety.
c
cores of 8–14 on the Insomnia Severity Index were defined as subthreshold insomnia, and scores of ≥ 15 were defined as moderate-to-severe insomnia.
d
Acute stress symptoms were defined as having an Acute Stress Disorder Scale dissociative cluster score of ≥ 9 and cumulative re-experiencing, avoidance, and arousal cluster scores of ≥ 28.
e
χ2 tests were used to compare the prevalence of mild-to-severe mental health symptoms in different populations.
f
1 ¥ = USD$0.14.