Figure 1.

Highly multiplexed imaging mass cytometry analysis of COVID-19 brains reveals neuroinflammation

(A) Experimental workflow. Medulla oblongata tissue slices from patient autopsies with COVID-19 (n = 25), history of ECMO therapy (n = 5), or multiple sclerosis (n = 6); control patients (n = 5); and COVID-19 olfactory bulb tissue slices (n = 11) were analyzed by IHC and IMC.

(B) Exemplary visualization of corresponding COVID-19 medulla tissue by IHC (left) and IMC (right). The area of interest is magnified in the insert. Scale bars: 100 μm and 50 μm. Left: IHC for Iba1 (brown) and CD8 (pink), counterstained with hematoxylin (blue). Arrows indicate CD8⁺ T cells. Right: Iba1 (red), CD8 (green), collagen (light blue), CD163 (yellow), and histone H3 (blue) IMC data channels are visualized.

(C) Exemplary visualization of indicated marker expression IMC data from channels in the same area as (B). Scale bar: 50 μm.

(D) Manual cell counting of defined immune populations was performed on the IMC dataset and compared among control (black), ECMO (gray), COVID-19 (blue), and multiple sclerosis patients (purple). Bar graphs indicate means ± SEM.

(E) Immunohistochemical reaction for APP (brown), indicating axonal damage in control and COVID-19 medullae. Counterstaining with hematoxylin (blue). Scale bars: 100 μm; 10 μm in the inserts. Right: quantification of APP deposits is shown; bar graph indicates means ± SEM.

See also Figure S1.