Synthesis processes of typical KIB anodes.

Typical KIB anodes	Synthesis strategies	Main precursors	Synthesis conditions	Ref.
SnO2 nanosheets	Hydrothermal treatment	NaOH; SnCl2; water	200 °C for 24 h	3
Graphitic carbon nanospring	Hydrothermal treatment	Epoxy resin; water	500 °C for 10 h	30
MoO2 hollow sphere	Hydrothermal treatment	Ammonium heptamolybdate; ascorbic acid; GO dispersion	180 °C for 15 h	48
Sulfur-rich (NH4)2Mo3S13	Hydrothermal treatment	Sodium molybdate; thioacetamide; water	160 °C for 24 h	63
ZnSe/C nanocage	Hydrothermal treatment	Zinc nitrate hexahydrate; 2-methylimidazole; methanol	140 °C for 1 h	82
Phosphorus/carbon composite	Mechanical milling	Red phosphorus; graphite powder	500 rpm for 48 h	34
Sb–graphite composites	Mechanical milling	Graphite; Sb power	450 rpm for 24 h	83
Activated red P/carbon	Mechanical milling	Red phosphorus; multi-wall carbon nanotubes; Ketjen black	300 rpm for 12 h	95
Mosaic RP/MoS2 hybrid	Mechanical milling	Commercial red phosphorus, bulk MoS2 powder	500 rpm for 24 h	106
Ti3C2 MXene nanoribbons	Chemical etching process	Ti3AlC2 powder; HF solution (40%); 6 M KOH	HF etching for 72 h; KOH etching for 72 h	9
Bicontinuous and nanoporous carbon spheres	Chemical etching process	SiOC ceramic spheres; molten KOH	High temperature (800 °C) etching for 2 h	68
Defect-rich graphitic nanocarbons	Chemical etching process	EDTA nickel coordination compound; sodium chloride; nickel chloride; HCl solution	120 °C for 24 h; cold water reflux	85
Silicon carbide-derived carbon	Chemical etching process	Cubic silicon carbide; chlorine gas	Chlorine etching; 900 °C for 2 h	102
Nitrogen-doped carbon nanofibers	Facile annealing	Polypyrrole fibre	650 °C for 2 h; N2 atmosphere	55
Zn nanoparticles confined in carbon network	Facile annealing	Zeolitic imidazolate framework-8	600 °C for 3 h; N2 flow	84
Chitin based carbon fibre	Facile annealing	Bio-waste chitin	700 °C for 2 h; Ar atmosphere	65
SnP0.94 nanoplate/GO	Co-precipitation	SnP0.94 powder; GO suspension; chitosan solution	Dropwise mixing; continuous stirring	4
FeMoSe4@N-doped carbon	Co-precipitation	Ferric chloride; molybdic acid; oleylamine; oleic acid; Se powder	180 °C; existence of generated H2Se	50
3D porous Sb-Co nanocomposites	Co-precipitation	Antimony trichloride; cobalt chloride; sodium citrate	pH = 12; dropwise adding; continuous stirring	89
Nano Sb confined in N-doped carbon fibers	Electrospinning	Antimony trichloride; polyacrylonitrile	Flow rate 10 μL min−1; voltage 10 kV	2
CuO/Cu–nitrogen-doped carbon microfibers	Electrospinning	Polyacrylonitrile; N,N-dimethylformamide; copper acetate monohydrate	Flow rate 0.3 mm min−1; voltage 16 kV	46
CoTe2–C composite microspheres	Spray drying	TeO2; cobalt nitrate; sucrose	550 °C; H2/Ar carrier gas; flow rate 5 L min−1	64
3D ultrathin nitrogen doped carbon nanosheets	Spray drying	Sodium chloride; ammonium citrate tribasic	Air atmosphere; 150 °C	81
Activated crumpled graphene	Spray drying	Graphene oxide; deionized water	100 °C; Ar carrier gas; flow rate 10 L min−1	99
SnO2 nanoparticles on 3D carbon foam	Electrodeposition	0.04 M SnSO4; 0.5 M H2SO4	Current density 0.8 mA cm−1; deposition time 5 h	16
Red P@activated carbon composite	Chemical vapor deposition	Red phosphorus; activated carbon	550 °C for 3 h; 260 °C for 24 h	119
Multiwalled hierarchical carbon nanotube	Chemical vapor deposition	Ferrocene; 1,2-dichlorobenzene	880 °C; Ar (2000 mL min−1); H2 (300 mL min−1)	125
CNT-modified graphitic carbon foam	Chemical vapor deposition	Nickel foam; nickel nitrate; cobalt nitrate	C2H4/H2/Ar (50/50/200 mL min−1); 750 °C	129