TABLE 4.
Summary table to demonstrate extracted information of included articles in narrative synthesis of quantitative studies and framework synthesis of qualitative and quantitative studies
| Study ID (reference) | Study aim(s) | Design | Sample information, location and attrition | Analysis | Findings | Methodological comments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Asiodu, I. V., Waters, C. M., Dailey, D. E., & Lyndon, A. (2017). Infant feeding decision‐making and the influences of social support persons among first‐time African American mothers. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 21, 863–872. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995‐016‐2167‐x | Describe the infant feeding experiences of African American mothers and their support persons |
Qualitative Semi‐structured interviews, field observations, longitudinal (antenatal interviews with postnatal follow up) |
San Francisco Bay, USA 14 pregnant women and 8 support persons, no reported attrition |
Braun and Clarke's (2006) theoretical and latent approach, thematic analysis; situational maps. Theoretical perspectives of Black Feminist Theory (Collins, 2008) and Family Life Course Development Theory (Bengston & Allen, 1993) informed the study. Longitudinal critical ethnographic approach taken to analysis |
Descriptive statistics Opportunity sampling used to recruit participants. Participants were aged 21–36, half of the participants were married or partnered and employed, most were high school graduates Qualitative themes Best for baby; normalisation and role models; social support; fluid social dynamics and resiliency; seeking support and empowerment; combination feeding; and stress, shame, and guilt |
Socioeconomically diverse sample of women recruited. Limited inclusion criteria which did not consider potentially confounding factors affecting breastfeeding ability and/or emotional experiences. Six participants did not have support persons, potentially biasing findings. Guilt and shame grouped in thematic analysis; no definitions provided to outline use of terms |
| Chezem, J., Montgomery, P., & Fortman, T. (1997). Maternal feelings after cessation of breastfeeding: Influence of factors related to employment and duration. Journal of Perinatal and Neonatal Nursing, 11(2), 61–70 | Measure feelings following weaning in women planning on returning to employment within the first postpartum year | Quantitative telephone interviews, longitudinal (third trimester antenatal, with postnatal follow ups at 6 weeks, 3, and 6 months) |
Indiana, USA 53 participants, of 68 women approached (22.06% attrition). 6 did not breastfeed, and 9 could not be reached for all interviews and so were excluded |
Pearson's correlation coefficients determined relationships between demographics and dependent variables, t‐tests determined differences in dependent variables and breastfeeding cessation motivation |
Descriptive statistics Opportunity sampling used to recruit participants. Participants' age brackets ranged from below 20 years (3 participants) to 36–40 years (2 participants), 51% White, 94% primiparous Findings Women who did not meet infant feeding plans upon return to work scored significantly higher guilt (p = 0.004) compared with women who did met these goals |
Small sample size which did not control for potential confounders in statistical analyses. T test statistics, degrees of freedom and effect sizes not reported. Unrepresentative sample of women (mostly 26–30 years old, White, and with a Bachelor's degree) recruited. Limited inclusion criteria which did not consider potentially confounding factors affecting breastfeeding ability and/or emotional experiences. Opportunity for expansion given for response option ‘other’ regarding reason for breastfeeding cessation, was not given for emotional response post‐cessation. Guilt measured using a 5‐point Likert scale (1 very guilty – 5 not guilty), no definition provided for guilt |
| Crossley, M. L. (2009). Breastfeeding as a moral imperative: An authoethnographic study. Feminism & Psychology, 19(1), 71–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353508098620 | Illustrate how breastfeeding can be fraught with tension as contradictory pressures pull women in different directions |
Qualitative Dialogical interview between author and author's partner, case study, cross‐sectional |
UK One participant, attrition not applicable |
Lee and Fuerdi's (2005) paper informed conversation topics. Autoethnographic and feminist‐inspired (e.g. Stanley, 1993) social scientific approach taken (Richardson, 2000), thematic analysis. McAdams' (1993) methodological approach to narrative Psychology used to develop semi‐structured interview schedule |
Descriptive statistics Autoethnographic approach. No descriptive statistics reported Qualitative themes Intention/motivation to breastfeed; things go wrong: Conflicting interpretations; bottle feeding, confusion, guilt, and shame; conflicting identities – The ‘relational’ mother vs. the ‘slim, fit person’ |
No evidence of inter‐rater reliability testing during analysis. Method used to conduct thematic analysis not reported. No reporting of demographic information. Guilt and shame grouped together in thematic analysis; no definitions provided for guilt or shame |
| Dalzell, J. (2007). Exploring the infant feeding experiences of low‐income mothers and the support offered by health professionals involved in their care: A qualitative study [unpublished Master's dissertation]. University of Dundee. | Explore and gain an understanding of women's breastfeeding experiences, and to explore the support offered by health professionals |
Qualitative Semi‐structured interviews, Cross‐sectional |
University of Dundee, UK 18 postnatal women and 10 health professions Of 23 mothers approached, 18 consented to participate |
Interpretative (Bryman, 2001; Robson, 2002), phenomenological and positivist approach (Cormack, 2000), thematic analysis; ontological perspective (Porter, 1993; Crotty, 1998) framework analysis applied |
Descriptive statistics Opportunity sampling used to recruit participants. No descriptive statistics reported Qualitative themesinitiating breastfeeding; supplementary feeding; separation of mothers and babies; developing and maintaining milk supply; support at home; being able to breastfeed in a community; feelings |
Good consideration of theoretical underpinnings for analysis approach. Deprivation index used to recruit mothers from disadvantaged areas so to meet study objectives. Clear exclusion criteria included so to avoid potential confounders. Greater number of breastfeeding mothers recruited than was intended due to participant misclassification of infant feeding method. ‘Feelings’ is a very broad theme which could have been broken up further. No definition of guilt provided |
| Fahlquist, J. N. (2016). Experience of non‐breastfeeding mothers: Norms and ethically responsible risk communication. Nursing Ethics, 23(2), 231–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/0969733014561913 | Understand how non‐breastfeeding mothers experience breastfeeding and breastfeeding discontinuation |
Qualitative Online study with open text responses |
Sweden, UK, and the Netherlands Two online surveys. Survey 1 had 5 respondents. Survey 2 had 42 respondents No attrition information reported |
Content analysis |
Survey 1 Purposeful sampling used to recruit participants. 4 Swedish women and 1 English woman participated in survey one. Survey 2 Purposive sampling used to recruit participants. 24 women gave birth in Sweden, 7 in the UK, and 4 in the Netherlands. 1 woman did not provide details about country gave birth in. All but 4 respondents tried to breastfeed initially. No demographic information reported Qualitative themes Depression, anxiety, and pain – Feeling like a failed mother; relief and guilt; bonding problems; and feeling trapped – Losing one's freedom |
No specific information regarding how included items were selected for in the distributed surveys. No information regarding approach taken to conducting the content analysis reported. No reporting of demographic information. Some themes are lesser supported than others e.g. ‘losing one's freedom’ is much lesser supported than ‘relief and guilt’. The theme ‘depression, anxiety, and pain – Feeling like a failed mother’ has many sub‐components which could have been examined independently. One participant spoke of feeling, ‘ashamed’ (p. 236), however, this account is under the ‘relief and guilt’ theme. No definition of guilt provided |
| Fallon, V., Komninou, S., Bennett, K. M., Halford, J. C. G. & Harrold, J. A. (2016b). The emotional and practical experiences of formula‐feeding mothers. Maternal and Child Nutrition, 13(4), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12392 | Describe the emotional and practical experiences of formula feeding mothers | Quantitative online, cross‐sectional |
Online 601 mothers of infants up to 26 weeks of age, of 890 potential participants. 289 were excluded for survey non‐completion (32.47% attrition) |
Relative risk ratios conducted for association between exposure and outcome variables, using multinomial logit models. Backward elimination used to build adjusted models |
Descriptive statistics Purposive sample recruited. Participants were aged 18–46, 64% were married, 62% primiparous, 57.2% from the UK (1.2% Irish, 20.3% USA, 9.5% Australian, 3.7% new Zealanders, 5% Canadian, 2% other, European, and 1.1% other, world). Demographic variables kept as confounders if they changed the beta coefficients of the exposure categories by more than 10% Findings Guilt experienced by 67% of mothers; relative risk of exclusively formula feeding was four times lower compared with women who intended to exclusively breastfeed but whom were exclusively formula feeding at the time of investigation (RRR: .45, 95% CI: .25, .79) and 2 times lower in combination feeders (RRR: .38, 95% CI: .21, .64) for those experiencing guilt |
Addressed a comprehensive range of potential confounders. Binary examination of guilt as present or absent. Lack of survey item validity testing. Unrepresentative sample of mostly primiparous women who were wither married or living with a partner. Participants asked about guilt via binary ‘yes/no’ response options to question, ‘have you ever felt guilty about the way you choose to feed your baby?’ (p. 6) No definition of guilt provided |
| Fox, R., McMullen, S., & Newburn, M. (2015). UK women's experiences of breastfeeding and additional breastfeeding support: A qualitative study of baby café services. Pregnancy and Childbirth, 15(147), 1–12. Https:doi.org/10.1186/s12884‐015‐0581‐5 | Identify which elements of baby café support are effective and why, and to examine how such these services can be integrated with other forms of support |
Qualitative Interviews and focus groups, cross‐sectional |
UK (London, south East England, northern England), 36 interviews and 5 focus groups with 51 mothers, 1 of 9 sites approached declined participation, 12 women approached refused participation | Inductive approach, thematic analysis |
Descriptive statistics Convenience sample recruited. Participants were aged 23–44,33 primiparous and 18 multiparous, mostly highly educated and employed, all but one was cohabiting, 10 born outside of the UK Qualitative themes Antenatal education: Unrealistic expectations; realistic experiences: Pressure, guilt, and blame; postnatal care: Conflicting advice and undermining of confidence; support from friends and family; seeking breastfeeding support; breastfeeding role models; breastfeeding as a journey |
Evaluation steering group consisting of support group facilitators oversaw the research being conducted, meeting regularly throughout the conduction of the study. Sites were selected to reflect diverse locations and support provision. Method of data analysis clearly outlined. No clear exclusion criteria for participant recruitment. Interviews were conducted in baby Cafés with group facilitators present which may have led to social desirability bias. Sample was biased towards older mothers, and those with higher levels of education and employment. No definition of guilt provided |
| Hanell, L. (2017). The failing body: Narratives of breastfeeding troubles and shame. Linguistic Anthropology, 27(2), 232–251. https://doi.org.liverpool.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/jola.12158 | Explore the relationship between discourse and difficult breastfeeding experiences, and proposing that shame arises in deviations from bio‐political ideologies |
Qualitative Case study, longitudinal (6 monthly interviews, and regular contact through email, text, and Instagram) |
Stockholm One participant, attrition not applicable |
Field notes made on text‐based communications and photographic reports included alongside longitudinal narrative analysis (Bauman, 2004; Foucault, 1991) |
Descriptive statistics No information on sampling strategy provided. Participant was in her late 20s, primiparous, lived with husband, preschool teacher Qualitative themes Discourse and malfunctioning breastfeeding; online searches; medicalisation; embodiments of bio‐political regimes; failing before the other; inviting the medical gaze; creating the experience in narrative |
No information reported regarding study design. No information reported on how interview schedules were developed, or on method of analysis conducted. No evidence of inter‐rater reliability being checked during analysis. No definition of guilt provided. Ahmed's (2014) and Bourdieu's (2001) definitions of shame utilised |
| Hvatum and Glavin (2017). Mothers' experience of not breastfeeding in a breastfeeding culture. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 26, 19–20. https://doi.org.liverpool.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/jocn.13663 | Investigate the experience of not breastfeeding in a breastfeeding culture |
Qualitative Descriptive design with semi‐structured interviews, cross‐sectional |
Norway, 12 mother‐infant dyads, no reported attrition | Graneheim and Lundman's (2004) approach, thematic analysis |
Descriptive statistics Opportunity sampling technique used to recruit participants. Participants were aged 25–40, all infants singleton and healthy, all bar one were married/cohabiting Qualitative themes Desire to adopt Norwegian culture; feeding as though one was breaking the law; and lack of and unbalanced information |
Inclusion criterion, ‘mothers who had experienced stressful breastfeeding’ (p. 3146) is quite vague. No consideration for potential congenital abnormalities which may otherwise contraindicate breastfeeding. Two mothers provided retrospective accounts of their infant feeding experiences dating three years prior. Good outline of interview schedule provided. Method of analysis outlined clearly. No evidence of inter‐rater reliability testing reported. Guilt and shame grouped in thematic analysis. No definitions of guilt or shame provided in text. Guilt accounts and shame accounts are clearly distinguished in results section |
| Komninou, S., Fallon, V., Halford, J. C. G., & Harrold, J. A. (2016). Differences in the emotional and practical experiences of exclusively breastfeeding and combination feeding mothers. Maternal and Child Nutrition, 13, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12364 | Quantify the emotional and practical experiences of breastfeeding mothers |
Quantitative online, cross‐sectional |
Online 679 mothers with infants up to 26 weeks of age, of 845 potential participants. 151 were excluded for survey non‐completion (19.64% attrition). 7 exclusively formula feeding mothers excluded due to statistical issues with small sample size. |
Relative risk ratios for the association between exposure and outcome variables calculated using binary logit models. Backward elimination used to build adjusted models |
Descriptive statistics Opportunity sampling used to recruit participants. Participants were aged 19–45, 95.8% were married or living with their partner, 88.1% from the UK (other countries of residence not reported), 45.8% primiparous, and 90% in paid occupation. Demographic variables were kept as confounders if they changed the beta coefficients of the exposure categories by more than 10% Findings Risk for combination feeding mothers to experience guilt was 6 times higher compared with exclusively breastfeeding mothers (RRR: .17, 95% CI: .10, .27) |
Addressed a comprehensive range of potential confounders. Binary examination of guilt as being present or absent. Unrepresentative sample of women mainly from the UK and married or living with a partner. Participants asked about guilt via binary ‘yes/no’ response options to question, ‘have you ever felt guilty about the way you choose to feed your baby?’ (p .4). No definition of guilt provided |
| Lagan, B. M., Symon, A., Dalzell, J., & Whitford, H. (2014). ‘The midwives aren't allowed to tell you’: Perceived infant feeding policy restrictions in a formula feeding culture – The feeding your baby study. Midwifery, 30, 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2013.10.017 | Explore the expectations and experiences of infant feeding |
Qualitative Semi‐structured interviews and focus groups, cross‐sectional |
Tayside, Scotland, UK, 38 participants took part in 7 focus groups and 40 interviews. 158 women approached, of which 78 women consented to participate |
Ritchie and Lewis's (2003) five‐stage analytic framework approach, field notes were made to increase depth of data collected |
Descriptive statistics Opportunity sampling was used to recruit participants. Participants were aged 19–41, 96% Caucasian, 92.3% married or in a relationship, 94.9% employed, 62.8% primiparous, Qualitative themes Mixed and missing messages; conflicting advice and information gaps; unrealistic preparation and breastfeeding pressure; emotional costs |
Very limited exclusion criteria e.g. infant under care of social services or infant still in hospital at time of investigation. Understanding of questions was checked throughout interview process with participants to ensure study credibility and validity. Clear description of data analysis process. Inter‐rater reliability conducted by two independent researchers. Period between giving birth and taking part in the study varied between one to eight months across participants, potentially resulting in different emotional and/or practical infant feeding experiences. No definition of guilt provided |
| Lamontagne, C., Hamelin, A. M., & St‐Pierre, M. (2008). The breastfeeding experience of women with major difficulties who use the services of a breastfeeding clinic: A descriptive study. International Breastfeeding Journal, 3(17), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746‐4358‐3‐17 | Describe the breastfeeding experiences of women using breastfeeding services |
Mixed methods Quantitative telephone questionnaire Qualitative semi‐structured interviews |
Greater Quebec City, and Trois‐Riviéres, France Quantitative 86 participants Qualitative 12 participants Of 140 women approached, 54 did not participate (38.57% attrition) |
Quantitative Frequency tables used to analyse questionnaire responses, descriptive statistics Qualitative Content analysis |
Descriptive statistics Purposive sampling used to recruit participants to reflect diverse length of breastfeeding duration and of participant education level. Participants recruited through systematic sampling with a random start: 56% were aged 20–29, 98% were married or in common‐law, 55% had a university diploma, and 70% earned equal to or over $50,000 per annum Quantitative Participants recruited via systematic sampling with a random start using randomly selected records from clinic attendees, stratified by location. Most common reasons for breastfeeding cessation included: Latching difficulties/breast refusal (39%), and low milk supply (37%). Identified infant feeding support persons most commonly included: Partner (67%) and community center nurse (40%). Majority were satisfied with physicians (88%) and lactation consultants (94%) infant feeding support Qualitative themes Personal influences; social influences; breastfeeding clinic influence |
Representative sample of participants with no significant differences regarding demographic characteristics. Small sample size recruited which did not allow for content saturation to be reached. Inclusion criteria clearly outlined in methodology; detailed outline of exclusion criteria considered. Clear rationale provided for inclusion of sociodemographic questions based on previously conducted research. Analysis steps well outlined in methodology, though there was no reported mention of inter‐rater reliability checking. Use of non‐validated research tools. No definition of guilt provided |
| Lee, E. (2007a). Living with risk in the age of ‘intensive motherhood’: Maternal identity and infant feeding. Health, Risk and Society, 10(5), 467–477. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698570802383432 | Explore how mothers experience formula feeding in a context deeming formula milk as ‘risky’ |
Mixed methods Qualitative individual interviews, cross‐sectional Quantitative Telephone interviews conducted by NOP world, cross‐sectional |
University of Kent, UK Qualitative 33 participants, no attrition reported Quantitative 504 participants, no attrition reported |
Qualitative ‘… standard qualitative analysis techniques …’ (p. 472) Quantitative No information reported |
Descriptive statistics, qualitative Opportunity sampling was used to recruit participants. Participants were aged 22–40, just under half were primiparous, half had infants 0–3 months old, half 4–6 months old Descriptive statistics, quantitative Quota sampling used to recruit participants, no descriptive statistics reported Quantitative Not breastfeeding was associated with guilt (33%), failure (32%), uncertainty about having done the right thing (48%), worries about what health visitor/midwife might say about formula feeding(23%), and worries about infant health consequences of formula feeding (20%) Qualitative themes Living with risk: Maternal identity and women who formula feed; moral collapse; confident mothers; defiant and defensive mothers; struggling with pressure and going it alone |
Representative sample with no significant differences regarding demographic characteristics between participants. Part of a larger study conducted by the named author under the guidance of NOP world. Data splicing and missing information regarding data analyses. No definition of guilt provided |
| Lee, E. (2007b). Infant feeding in risk society. Health, Risk and Society, 9(3), 295–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698570701488910 | Explore experiences with formula feeding |
Mixed methods Qualitative individual interviews, cross‐sectional Quantitative Telephone interviews conducted by NOP world, cross‐sectional |
London, South England, and the midlands Qualitative 33 participants, no attrition reported Quantitative 504 participants, no attrition reported |
Qualitative ‘… standard qualitative analysis techniques …’ (p. 299) Quantitative No information reported |
Descriptive statistics, qualitative Opportunity sampling was used to recruit participants. Participants were aged 22–40, just under half primiparous, half had infants 0–3 months old, half had infants 4–6 months old Descriptive statistics, quantitative Quota sampling used to recruit participants. 405 of 504 respondents had formula fed by the time of interview Quantitative Not breastfeeding was associated with guilt (33%), failure (32%), uncertainty about having done the right thing (48%), worries about what health visitor/midwife might say about formula feeding(23%), and worries about infant health consequences of formula feeding (20%) Qualitative themes Doing what is ‘easy’; worry, guilt, and failure; uncertainty |
Representative sample with no significant differences regarding demographic characteristics. Part of a larger study conducted by the named author under the guidance of NOP world. Data splicing and missing information regarding data analyses. No definition of guilt provided |
| Lee, E. (2007c). Health, morality, and infant feeding: British mothers' experiences of formula milk use in the early weeks. Sociology of Health and Illness, 29(7), 1,075–1,090. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467‐9566.2007.01020.x | Aims to build upon insight about maternal experience with infant feeding in the early weeks following childbirth |
Mixed methods Qualitative individual interviews, cross‐sectional Quantitative Telephone interviews conducted by NOP world, cross‐sectional |
London, South England, and the midlands. Qualitative 33 participants, no attrition reported Quantitative 504 participants, no attrition reported |
Qualitative thematic analysis Quantitative No information reported |
Descriptive statistics Opportunity sampling used to recruit participants. Participants were aged 22–40, 14 primiparous, all used formula wholly or in part 0–3 months postpartum Descriptive statistics, quantitative 405 of 504 respondents had formula fed by the time of interview, half had infants 0–3 months old, half had infants 4–6 months old, 21% participants 16–24, 61% 25–34, 18% 35 or over Quantitative Quota sampling used to recruit participants. Not breastfeeding was associated with guilt (33%), failure (32%), uncertainty about having done the right thing (48%), worries about what health visitor/midwife might say about formula feeding(23%), and worries about infant health consequences of formula feeding (20%) Qualitative themes Feelings about feeding choices; failure, guilt, and worry; uncertainty and defiance; shame and avoidance; other mothers |
Representative sample with no significant differences regarding demographic characteristics. Part of a larger study conducted by the named author under the guidance of NOP world. Data splicing and missing information regarding data analyses. No definition of guilt provided |
| Lee, E. & Furedi, F. (2005). Mothers' experience of, and attitudes to, using infant formula in the early months: Key findings. School of Social Policy, Sociology and Social Research, University of Kent, 1–8. Infant Formula‐main05.indd (researchgate.net) | Generate preliminary findings about how women experience feeding infant feeding in the current cultural and social context |
Mixed methods Qualitative individual interviews, cross‐sectional Quantitative Telephone interviews conducted by NOP world, cross‐sectional |
University of Kent, UK Qualitative 33 participants, no attrition reported Quantitative 504 participants, no attrition reported |
Qualitative No information reported Quantitative No information reported |
Descriptive statistics, qualitative Opportunity sampling used to recruit participants. All participants used formula wholly or in part 0–3 months postpartum Descriptive statistics, quantitative Quota sampling used to recruit participants. 405 of 504 respondents had formula fed by the time of interview Quantitative Not breastfeeding was associated with guilt (33%), failure (32%), uncertainty about having done the right thing (48%), worries about what health visitor/midwife might say about formula feeding(23%), and worries about infant health consequences of formula feeding (20%) Qualitative themes Attitudes towards formula use; pathways to formula use; feelings about formula use; interactions with healthcare professionals; interactions with family and other mothers |
Representative sample with no significant differences regarding demographic characteristics. Part of a larger study conducted by the named author under the guidance of NOP world. Data splicing and missing information regarding data analyses. No definition of guilt provided |
| Mozingo, J., Davis, M., Droppleman, D. G., Merideth, A. (2000). ‘It wasn't working’: Women's experiences with short‐term breastfeeding. The American Journal of Maternal and Child Nursing, 25(3), 120–126. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005721‐200005000‐00004 | Investigate the lived experiences of women who stop breastfeeding within the first 2 weeks postpartum |
Qualitative Unstructured interviews, cross‐sectional |
University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA 9 participants, no attrition reported |
Phenomenological approach, thematic analysis |
Descriptive statistics Opportunity sampling used to recruit participants. Participants were aged 20–32, 8 were married, 7 primiparous, education ranged from high school to college graduate Qualitative themes Idealised expectations; clash with reality; personal feelings of discomfort; inadequate/inappropriate assistance; incremental disillusionment and breastfeeding cessation; relief versus guilt/shame/sense of failure; lingering self‐doubts versus resolution |
No specified exclusion criteria regarding reasons for breastfeeding cessation within the first two weeks postpartum. Inter‐rater reliability checked by multiple members of the research team and analysis approach clearly outlined according to Pollio, Henley and Thompson (1997). Guilt and shame grouped in thematic analysis. No definitions of guilt or shame provided |
| Murphy, E. (2000). Risk, responsibility, and rhetoric in infant feeding. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 29(3), 291–325 | Consider how mothers deal with threats to good mother identifies after breastfeeding cessation |
Qualitative Semi‐structured interviews, longitudinal |
Nottingham, England, 36 primiparous mothers, quota sample, no attrition reported | Inductive analysis with developed coding framework |
Descriptive statistics Stratified sample of participants recruited based on occupational class and maternal age. Quota sampling was used to recruit participants. 35 White British, 11 ‘younger’ and 13 ‘older’ mothers recruited Qualitative themes The baby as unharmed by formula; beyond the mother's control; physical incapacity; blaming others |
Information on occupational class profile of NHS practices were obtained to select participating practices. Large number (216) of interviews conducted longitudinally. Three interviews were not audio recorded but rather the researcher took field notes during interviewing which were written up immediately post‐interview. Method of analysis clearly outlined and inter‐rater reliability checked at weekly analysis meetings. No definition of guilt provided |
| Spencer, R. I., Greatrex‐White, S., & Fraser, D. M. (2014). ‘I thought it would keep them all quiet’. Women's experiences of breastfeeding as illusions of compliance: An interpretive phenomenological study. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 71(5), 1,076–1,086. https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.12592 | Explore maternal experiences of breastfeeding |
Qualitative Individual semi‐structured interviews, cross‐sectional |
East midlands, UK 22 women, no attrition reported. |
Interpretive phenomenological approach (Heidegger, 1962), Heideggerian interpretive phenomenology |
Descriptive statistics purposive sampling approach used to recruit participants. Participants were aged 16–37, 59% primiparous, 21 women were White, British, 21 in a long‐term relationship, 1 had returned to work Qualitative themes Illusions of compliance; healthcare professional and society compliance; Family and friends compliance; Passive acquiescence; active decision‐making |
Inclusion criteria for breastfeeding duration and infant age were well justified. Did not consider potential confounding variables as possible exclusion criteria. Method of data analysis clearly outlined. No evidence of inter‐rater reliability checking during analysis. No definition of guilt provided |
| Thomson, G., Ebisch‐Burton, K. & Flacking, R. (2015). Shame if you do – Shame if you do not: Women's experiences of infant feeding. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 11, 33–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12148 | Explore maternal experiences of infant feeding |
Qualitative Focus groups and individual interviews, cross‐sectional |
North West England, 63 women in 7 focus groups and 28 individual interviews, no attrition reported | Richie and Lewis's (2003) framework analysis |
Descriptive statistics Opportunity sampling was used to recruit participants. Participants were aged 19–42, all bar one was married/cohabiting, majority were White, British Qualitative themes Vulnerability of subject (mother); Exposure of women's bodies and infant feeding; undermining and inadequate support; perceptions of inadequate mothering |
No clear exclusion criteria for participant recruitment. No information reported regarding participant annual household income and education status. Participants recruited from areas of diverse deprivation. Interview schedule well outlined. Analysis checked by a second researcher. Niedenthal, Tangney, and Gavanski's (1994) Definitions of guilt and shame utilised. Lazare's (1987) categories of shame were used as a theoretical framework |