Fig. 2. Generation and functionality of EVs from normal and apoptotic cells.

From normal cells, exosomes are formed through exocytosis of endosomal membrane based on ESCRT-dependent and -independent mechanisms, which subsequently secrete exosomes via Rab11/27/35. Microvesicles are shed from the plasma membrane. In contrast, apoEVs are released from apoptotic cells based on multiple mechanisms including (S1P)/S1PRs- and Caspase 3-depended apoEV release as well as PANX1-controlled apoptopodia formation. On the one hand, EVs and apoEVs modulate immune responses in circulatory system. On the other hand, they are attributed to injury response and regeneration of local tissues.