Table 2. Associations of Social and Behavioral Risk Factors With 30-Day Mortality Among US Veterans With COVID-19a.
| Variable | OR | P value | Adjusted OR | P value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Social and behavioral risk factors | ||||
| Housing problems | 0.86 (0.71-1.04) | .13 | 0.96 (0.77-1.19) | .70 |
| Financial hardship | 1.86 (1.63-2.12) | <.001 | 1.13 (0.97-1.31) | .11 |
| Current tobacco use | 0.63 (0.53-0.75) | <.001 | 0.85 (0.68-1.06) | .14 |
| Alcohol use | 0.53 (0.44-0.63) | <.001 | 0.82 (0.68-1.01) | .06 |
| Substance use | 0.83 (0.69-0.99) | .04 | 0.90 (0.71-1.15) | .41 |
| Age, y | ||||
| <55 | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | ||
| 55-59 | 0.30 (0.22-0.41) | <.001 | 2.75 (1.8-4.21) | <.001 |
| 60-64 | 0.67 (0.54-0.82) | <.001 | 5.12 (3.56-7.35) | <.001 |
| 65-69 | 1.04 (0.86-1.25) | .71 | 7.06 (4.94-10.08) | <.001 |
| 70-74 | 2.23 (1.96-2.55) | <.001 | 12.37 (8.86-17.29) | <.001 |
| 75-79 | 3.10 (2.63-3.65) | <.001 | 16.04 (11.24-22.91) | <.001 |
| ≥80 | 8.39 (7.37-9.55) | <.001 | 30.78 (21.74-43.57) | <.001 |
| Sex | ||||
| Female | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | ||
| Male | 4.42 (3.17-6.18) | <.001 | 1.31 (0.91-1.87) | .15 |
| Race | ||||
| White | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | ||
| Black | 1.09 (0.97-1.22) | .17 | 1.10 (0.95-1.28) | .20 |
| Asian | 0.81 (0.46-1.45) | .48 | 2.02 (1.06-3.86) | .03 |
| American Indian or Alaska Native | 1.83 (1.18-2.83) | .01 | 2.41 (1.45-4.02) | .001 |
| Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander | 0.68 (0.32-1.22) | .17 | 0.97 (0.48-1.99) | .94 |
| Unknown | 0.62 (0.47-0.81) | .001 | 0.99 (0.72-1.34) | .92 |
| Ethnicity | ||||
| Hispanic | 0.55 (0.45-0.68) | <.001 | 1.04 (0.82-1.31) | .76 |
| Marital status | ||||
| Married | 1.04 (0.93-1.17) | .48 | 0.88 (0.77-1.00) | .06 |
| Comorbid conditions | ||||
| Hypertension | 3.71 (3.22-4.27) | <.001 | 1.01 (0.85-1.20) | .89 |
| Ischemic heart disease, cardiac disease intervention, or myocardial infarction | 3.28 (2.90-3.71) | <.001 | 1.12 (0.96-1.30) | .14 |
| Atrial fibrillation | 3.52 (3.04-4.07) | <.001 | 1.11 (0.93-1.32) | .25 |
| Stroke | 2.53 (1.98-3.22) | <.001 | 0.98 (0.75-1.29) | .91 |
| Diabetes or insulin use | 2.76 (2.46-3.10) | <.001 | 1.40 (1.22-1.60) | <.001 |
| Congestive heart failure | 3.54 (3.07-4.09) | <.001 | 0.94 (0.78-1.13) | .50 |
| Chronic kidney disease | 3.96 (3.53-4.45) | <.001 | 1.82 (1.60-2.08) | <.001 |
| Dialysis | 3.72 (2.82-4.91) | <.001 | 1.18 (0.86-1.63) | .30 |
| COPD or bronchiectasis | 3.01 (2.63-3.44) | <.001 | 1.17 (0.99-1.39) | .06 |
| Asthma | 0.78 (0.59-1.04) | .09 | 0.88 (0.65-1.19) | .41 |
| Pneumonia | 3.32 (2.71-4.09) | <.001 | 1.18 (0.93-1.50) | .18 |
| Sleep apnea | 1.21 (1.05-1.39) | .009 | 1.10 (0.93-1.30) | .27 |
| Deep venous thrombus or pulmonary embolism | 2.00 (1.51-2.64) | <.001 | 1.07 (0.79-1.46) | .65 |
| Rheumatoid arthritis or other inflammatory conditions | 1.54 (1.11-2.14) | .01 | 1.16 (0.81-1.67) | .42 |
| Cancer, including prostate cancer | 2.42 (2.06-2.84) | <.001 | 1.07 (0.89-1.27) | .48 |
| HIV and AIDS | 0.95 (0.55-1.62) | .84 | 1.03 (0.58-1.83) | .92 |
| Dementia | 7.06 (6.01-8.29) | <.001 | 2.08 (1.73-2.51) | <.001 |
| Cirrhosis or hepatitis | 1.51 (1.25-1.82) | <.001 | 1.30 (1.05-1.61) | .02 |
| Home oxygen in past year | 3.17 (2.55-3.94) | <.001 | 1.38 (1.07-1.79) | .01 |
| BMI | ||||
| <18.5 | 2.88 (1.65-5.05) | <.001 | 1.16 (0.62-2.18) | .65 |
| 18.5-24.9 | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | ||
| 25.0-29.9 | 0.75 (0.67-0.84) | <.001 | 0.83 (0.68-1.00) | .05 |
| ≥30 | 1.72 (1.48-1.99) | <.001 | 1.01 (0.83-1.22) | .95 |
| Unknown | 1.01 (0.82-1.24) | .96 | 1.01 (0.77-1.32) | .95 |
| Month of positive COVID-19 test result | ||||
| March | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | ||
| April | 2.67 (2.33-3.07) | <.001 | 0.62 (0.50-0.77) | <.001 |
| May | 1.41 (1.15-1.73) | .001 | 0.35 (0.26-0.46) | <.001 |
| June | 0.74 (0.62-0.88) | .001 | 0.33 (0.25-0.42) | <.001 |
| July | 0.48 (0.41-0.55) | <.001 | 0.23 (0.18-0.29) | <.001 |
| August | 0.69 (0.58-0.82) | <.001 | 0.23 (0.18-0.30) | <.001 |
| September | 0.71 (0.59-0.85) | <.001 | 0.23 (0.18-0.30) | <.001 |
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared); COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; OR, odds ratio.
a
Adjustment included age, sex, race, ethnicity, marital status, clinical factors, health care facility, and month of COVID-19 diagnosis.