Table 2.
Results of the systematic review for Interventions via Telehealth
| Article | Participant characteristics | Telehealth participant | Technology | Service | Design/method | Measures | Reported outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hepburn et al. (2016) | 33 families with children with ASD (17 in the intervention, mean of 11.5 years of age and 16 in the waitlist control, mean of 12 years of age) | Children and their parents | Therapist used VC using OoVoo throughout the intervention sessions using webcams and headsets | 10 session Telehealth Facing Your Fears intervention in a small-group format consisting of 4–6 parent youth dyads, individualized to fit the needs of each group | Repeated measure ANOVAs for pre- and post-intervention | SCARED, PSOC, participant monitoring form, parent and youth satisfaction ratings, treatment fidelity checklist | Results supported the feasibility and efficacy of a CBT intervention for anxiety in youth with ASD over telehealth; significant difference in scores on SCARED pre to post-intervention; therapist fidelity was strong, and all parents rated high levels of satisfaction |
| Ferguson et al. (2020) | Six children with ASD (males 3–7 years of age) | Children | VC using Zoom | 5 days per week, probe and teaching sessions of discrete trial teaching (provided instructive or corrective feedback) | Nonconcurrent multiple-baseline design | Primary and secondary responses, primary observational responses and secondary observational responses, IOA | All participants learned primary and secondary responses, and five participants acquired primary and secondary observation responses, high levels of attending and engagement during teaching |
| McCrae et al. (2020) | 17 children with ASD and insomnia (6–12 years of age) | Children and their parents | VC using Zoom | Eight (50 min) sessions of CBT-CI | Single arm study | Clinical interview, electronic sleep diary (SOL, TWT, TSTS), ABC, HRV, treatment satisfaction questionnaire, treatment credibility questionnaire | Improvement on challenging behaviors and SOL, TWT, and TSTS; Treatment integrity was high; treatment was rated 100% moderately to very helpful, 87.5% indicated CBT-CI was autism-friendly |
| Cihon et al. (2021) | Three children with ASD (males, 4–5 years of age) | Children | VC using Zoom | One session per day (10 min), 2–5 days a week (depending on child); Interventionists administered Cool Versus Not Cool procedure (changing the conversation when someone was bored—7 steps) | Nonconcurrent multiple-baseline design | Probe sessions to document if participant engaged in a step; IOA; social validity questionnaire | All participants reached master criterion (all 7 steps) during intervention condition; 2 out of 3 participants continued to reach mastery during generalization condition; all 3 continued to engage in all steps correctly during maintenance (7-day follow-up); intervention was found to be acceptable |
| Baharav and Reiser (2010) | Two parent–child dyads (children 4.6–5.2 years of age) | Parents | VC using Skype on laptops | Speech and language intervention (6-week period): Control Period: 2 weekly, 50-min sessions in-person, Experimental Period: one in-person (50 min) followed by remote coaching via VC as needed (50 min) | Single-subject time series: A–B repeated measures design | Vineland-2, S, MacArthur-CDI, video analyses of therapy sessions, parent satisfaction questionnaire, and fidelity measures | Children made gain in some aspects of communication (Vineland-2 and MacArthur CDI scores) in both intervention models, and parents reported telehealth intervention was as valuable as in-person |
| Vismara et al. (2012) | Nine parent–child dyads (all children diagnosed with ASD and were 36 months or younger) | Parents | VC using webcam on laptops (no VC program specifically reported) | 12-week,1-h/week ESDM parenting intervention with coaching and DVD learning module, Follow up: three-1-h sessions 2 weeks apart | Single-subject, multiple-baseline design with random assignment | Child social communication (e.g., language, imitation), ESDM Fidelity Scale, MBRS and CBRS, feasibility an acceptability questionnaire | High levels of treatment fidelity that were maintained, parents reported high satisfaction and ease of use, some child communication behaviors increased (e.g., language, use of language and gestures) |
| Vismara et al. (2013) | Eight parent–child dyads (children with ASD and younger than 48 months of age) | Parents | VC on self-guided website using a laptop and webcam | 12 weekly, 1.5-h parent coaching sessions to teach parent training strategies, access to P-ESDM learning modules, and 3, 1.5-h monthly follow-up sessions | Single-subject, multiple-baseline design with random assignment | Measure of parent satisfaction, P-ESDM Fidelity tool, MBRS, MacArthur-CDI, behavioral coding and parent reporting of child behaviors | Parent fidelity and total engagement increased from baseline through intervention, and maintained during follow-up, reported increased understanding and appreciation for helping their child learn skills at home |
| Wacker et al. (2013) | 17 parent–child dyads (16 males, 1 female with ASD; ranged from 29 to 80 months in age) | Parents | VC at teleconsultation centers using Windows PCs and webcams | 60-min sessions, received lived coaching from Behavior Analysts on FCT (baseline included FA sessions) | Nonconcurrent multiple-baseline design across children | Child problem behaviors based on FA (at baseline and intervention), IOA, acceptability and cost of service | Reduction in problem behaviors, Parents can be coached to administer FCT, parents rated treatment as acceptable, lower cost for telehealth than in-person |
| Suess et al. (2014) | Three children with ASD (males, 2–3 years of age) | Parents | VC using Skype and Debut software | Parents conducted all FA and FCT sessions while being coached by a behavior consultant | Multi-element design, with alternations between (A-coached) and (B-independent) trials | The children’s and parent’s behaviors were recorded and coded, IOA, parent fidelity, TARF-R | Parents’ fidelity at implementing intervention increased, parents rated high levels of satisfaction, and the children’s problem behaviors were reduced |
| Ingersoll and Berger (2015) | 28 parents of children with ASD (age ranged from 27 to 73 months) | Parents | VC using Skype | Parents completed a self-directed or therapist-assisted version of ImPACT (6 months). The therapist-assisted group attended 24 total (2–30 min) remote coaching sessions per week | Children were matched on their expressive language using the Mullen Scales of Early Learning; then randomly assigned to the self-directed or therapist-assisted group | CEWFS, CES-D, ImPACT knowledge quiz, intervention fidelity, program engagement, program evaluation, TEI, BIRS | There were high rates of parent engagement, therapist-assisted group had greater engagement than the self-directed group, and the therapist-assisted group was more likely to finish program |
| Wainer and Ingersoll (2015) | Five parent–child dyads (age ranged from 29 to 59 months) | Parents | Online VC using RIT website | Parent training either self-directed or taught through coaching sessions | Single-subject, multiple-baseline design | BIRS, program engagement, parent knowledge of RIT quiz, RIT fidelity form, child imitations, IOA | 4 of 5 parents achieved overall fidelity of implementation, 4 of 5 children maintained higher than baseline spontaneous imitation, remote coaching was rated high |
| Ingersoll et al. (2016) | 28 parents of children with ASD (age ranged from 27 to 73 months) | Parents | VC using Skype | Parents either completed a self-directed or therapist-assisted version of ImPACT (6 months). The therapist-assisted group attended 24 total (2–30 min) remote coaching sessions per week | Children were matched on their expressive language using the Mullen Scales of Early Learning; then randomly assigned to the self-directed or therapist-assisted group | Parent intervention fidelity, PSOC, FIQ, language targets during the parent–child interaction pre-, post-, and follow-up intervention. MacArthur-CDI, Vineland-2 | Both groups increased parent fidelity to treatment, parent’s rates of self-efficacy, and reduced parent stress, the therapist-assisted group made greater gains in parent fidelity, marginally greater gains in language targets during the parent–child interaction and was the only group to improve in social skills on the Vineland-2 |
| Lindgren et al. (2016) | 107 children with ASD or other DD (age 21–84 months) and their parents | Parents | Only Group 2 and 3 received remote coaching from a telehealth center, Group 2 used existing VC software, and Group 3 used VC on Skype | All three groups conducted FAs and FCT with their children. Group 1: treated in-home by trained consultants, Group 2: parents were coached on FAs and FCT via VC at a training clinic Group 3: coached via VC at home | FA: Mult-ielement single case design Random group assignment, Single-subject designs, comparisons between treatment delivery models (group differences) | FA sessions were coded, reduction of problem behaviors, treatment costs for each group, | There were no significant differences on reduction of behavior between groups, and parent-rated acceptability was high for all three groups, parents can successfully be taught to reduce their child’s behavior problems through FA and FCT |
| Machalicek et al. (2016) | Three parent–child dyads (two females, 8–16 years of age, one male, 9 years of age; all with ASD) | Parents | VC through IChat on laptop with webcam | Study 1: 60-min FBA interview, and 4 telehealth sessions for FA, provided feedback and coaching. Study 2: coached to implement brief multi-element treatment comparison, had video clips modeling strategies | Study 1: Brief multi-element treatment comparison. Study 2: Individual multi-element design, A-B non-experimental design | Data on the occurrence of challenging behaviors, IOA, procedural fidelity, social validity questionaries | Intervention strategies derived from FA decreased challenging behaviors, each parent chose to continue the strategies they liked implementing the best |
| Meadan et al. (2016) | Three mother–child dyads (children with ASD, 2–4 years of age) | Parents | VC through Skype on an iPad (recorded sessions) | Phase 1: 45-min training session, iPics coaches taught parents on 3 naturalistic teaching strategies (i.e., modeling, mand-model, time delay) and environmental arrangement. Phase 2: Ongoing coaching combined environmental arrangement and 3 naturalistic strategies. Phase 3: Maintenance | Multiple-baseline single case design | Parent quality and rate with which parents implemented the three strategies, children’s social communication initiations and responses, IOA, social validity | General increase of rate and quality of strategy use, maintained above baseline, Parents reported high satisfaction with goals, procedures, and outcomes |
| Pickard et al. (2016) | 28 parents of children with ASD (age ranged from 27 to 73 months) | Parents | VC using Skype | Self-directed: ImPACT online 12 sessions, Therapist-assisted: ImPACT online 12 sessions in addition to two 30-min remote coaching sessions per week | Children were matched on their expressive language using the Mullen Scales of Early Learning; then randomly assigned to the self-directed or therapist-assisted group | Sociodemographic questionnaire, ImPACT ratings, qualitative interviews (Analyzed by REAM) | Both groups found ImPACT to be favorable and easy to learn, positive perceptions about acceptability of program, Therapist-assisted group was 50% more likely to spontaneously report child made social communication gains |
| Suess et al. (2016) | Five parent–child dyads (three males and two females with ASD, ranged from 2–7 years in age) | Parents | VC using Skype | Before FA, 1-h group remote meeting FA sessions: Parent conducted during 1-h session at autism center FCT sessions: with coaching during 3, 15-min remote visits over 3 consecutive weeks | FA: Multi-element design. FCT: Nonconcurrent multiple-baseline design across children | IOA, task completion, mands (either prompted or not prompted), frequency of problem behavior and other variables | Reduction in children’s problematic behavior by average of 65.1%, suggest evidence supporting that parents can be coached to implement FA and FCT via telehealth |
| Simacek et al. (2017) | Three children (two females with ASD and one female with Rett syndrome; children between 3 and 4 years of age) | Parents | VC using Debut software with Logitech HD Pro Webcam C920 (sessions recorded) | FA sessions: 5 min with no more than 10 sessions (50 min), live coaching and feedback; FCT: coached with verbal feedback and instruction to use most to least prompting for AAC requests, up to 7 sessions were conducted per day, with either 3 trial blocks or lasting 5 min each | FAI, followed by SDA using a multi-element design. FA was then conducted, followed by FCT used an adapted multiple-probe design, in addition to ABAB design | Idiosyncratic responses for each child included frequency, AAC responses, IOA, TARF-R | AAC responses were strengthened when reinforcement was delivered for AAC response and denied for idiosyncratic responses in intervention phases, parents rated overall treatment as highly acceptable |
| Subramaniam et al. (2017) | Four parent–child dyads (children with ASD, ranged from 18 months to 12 years of age) | Parents | VC using Cisco WebEx program | In vivo initial visit and training with confederates, parent training/teaching DTI skills. VC sessions, feedback was immediate (twice a week), with fading of VC sessions | Nonconcurrent multiple-baseline design | Global parent treatment integrity, component parent treatment integrity, child mastery, trainer procedural fidelity, problem behavior, TARF | Parents were accurately able to implement DTI skills with VC, generalized skills and maintained accurate implementation over 26 weeks post-training, VC deemed as effective |
| Bearss et al. (2018) | 14 children with ASD (ranged from 3 to 7 years of age) | Parents | VC | 6-month open trial of RUBI-PT program via telehealth (11 core sessions, 2 supplemental, 3 telephone boosters) | Open Trial |
Subject categorizations, Feasibility measures (i.e., TFC, PTAS, parent satisfaction questionnaire, telehealth caregiver satisfaction survey, telehealth provider satisfaction survey, Efficacy measures (ABC, HSQ-ASD, PTP, CGI-I, Vineland-2) |
High treatment fidelity, significant improvements on ABC, 78.6% of children were “much improved” on CGI-I, parent-reported greater confidence in handling behaviors, telehealth services deemed acceptable by parents |
| Benson et al. (2018) | Two children (one male with ASD, 5 years of age and one male with cerebral palsy, 8 years of age) | Parents | VC using Google Hangouts communication platform, Dell computer and Logitech camera | Coaches delivered remote instruction and support to parents for FA and FCT sessions | FA: Multi-element design. FCT: ABAB single case experimental design | SDA, IOA, reduction in children’s self-injurious behavior, implementation fidelity | High levels of parent satisfaction with procedures and use of technology, high implementation fidelity across, reduction in child’s problematic behaviors |
| Kuravackel et al. (2018) | 33 children with ASD (age 3–12 years of age) | Parent | VC | Parents were assigned either the waitlist control group, face-to-face C-HOPE intervention or C-HOPE delivered by telehealth over an 18-month period | Iterative pretest–posttest control group design | M-CHAT, SCQ, ADOS-2, PSI, ECBI, BPS, Vineland-2, CSQ, GSRS, Parent fidelity questionnaire | Reduction in child problem behaviors, an increase in parent competency, and a decrease in parent stress, no differences in parent stress or competency by treatment modality, parents were highly satisfied with both face-to face and telehealth modalities |
| Schieltz et al. (2018) | Two children (2–6 years of age with ASD) | Parents | VC using Skype on Windows-based PC | Mothers provided FA and FCT while being coached from behavior consultants through telehealth sessions | FA: Multi-element design, FCT: nonconcurrent multiple-baseline design across participants | Behavioral definitions, IOA, (assessed using exact interval-by-interval comparisons), treatment fidelity | High treatment fidelity reported by parents, children’s problem behaviors decreased |
| Vismara et al. (2018) | Eight parent–child dyads (children were 18–48 months old and with ASD) | Parents | VC using Citrix program GoToMeeting | Intervention: 12 weekly, 1.5-h parent coaching sessions of P-ESDM topics, access to learning modules, Comparison: monthly 1.5-h coaching sessions, access to website without P-ESDM content | Randomized group assignment | P-ESDM fidelity tool, program website usage, program satisfaction ratings, social communication behaviors | Parents reported increased satisfaction in P-ESDM group than community group, children in P-ESDM group produced more imitation, increase in fidelity at follow up for P-ESDM group |
| Guðmundsdóttir et al. (2019) | Three parent–child dyads (3–4 years of age with ASD) | Parents | VC using Skype through Microsoft LifeCam Cinema | Training on naturalistic behavioral interventions (Sunny Starts Program, DANCE) given to parents (almost 2 h per session, 7–14 sessions depending) | Multiple-baseline design | Parents’ behaviors, children’s behaviors (social attending, requesting, number of words, unintelligent verbalizations), IOA | Teaching parents via brief in-person situation training, and on-going telehealth training increased their skills and had a positive effect on the child’s skills, parents reported that social attending increased in children |
| Davis et al. (2020) | Two parent–child dyads (one male, 6 years of age, and one female, 15 years of age, with ASD) | Parents | VC through Whatsapp and video data collected through SendSafely | Token economy system implementation, 3-week baseline, training intervention phases (fixed interval 30 s), and faded intervention phase (fixed interval 60 s) | Nonconcurrent multiple-baseline design | Token economy procedural fidelity (e.g., frequency of token adherence, redirection, appropriate prompting through transitions to activity and break using tokens) based on observational data, IOA, social validity survey | Increase in implementation accuracy for both participants after baseline, both averaged over 84% accuracy through fading phase; decreased perception of disruption and confidence in using token economy system; parents reported convenience and ease of telehealth platform |
| Fisher et al. (2020) | 36 parent–child dyads (30 females, 6 males, 26–46 months, with ASD) | Parents | VC through VPN with Logitech webcam and Bluetooth headset | Intervention Group: Coached scripted role-plays with one parent of dyad and confederates to implement EIBI skills, Parent completed 9 E-learning modules Waitlist Control: second parent of dyad | RCT, pre-post test comparisons | BISWA and BISPA, social validity questionnaire, IOA | Percentage of opportunities for BISWA and BISPA increased pre-to post treatment in intervention group; intervention was rated as socially acceptable |
| Lindgren, (2020) | 51 children (between 21 and 84 months with ASD) | Parents | VC using Skype | Competed FA with coaching before randomization, FCT Intervention Group: Parents conducted FCT with real-time coaching (60-min weekly session for at least 12 weeks). Delayed FCT Group: 12 weeks of treatment as usual | RCT FA: Multiple-element design FCT: nonconcurrent multiple-baseline across participants, plus reversal design | The percent of reduction of problem behavior in children, TARF-R | All children showed improved behavior in FCT group compared to two in Delayed group, improved in social communication and task completion in FCT group, and the parent implemented FCT using telehealth reduced children’s problem behavior |
| Marino et al. (2020) | 74 parents of 36 children with ASD, (average age: 69.6 months) | Parents | Web platform within Google-suite | Phase 1: Both groups 12, 2-h informative sessions Phase 2: 12 weeks of 2-h group behavioral therapy, 1-h per week one–one ABA for child Phase 3: 12 weeks Telehealth Group: 2-h per week tele-assisted one-on-one parent training and coaching Control Group: same intervention protocol without tele-assistance | RCT—group comparisons | HSQ-ASD, PSI/SF | Decrease on PSI/SF of tele-assisted group but not control group, increased ability of tele-assisted group to face stress |
| Rooks-Ellis et al. (2020) | Ten parent–child dyads (six males, four females with ASD, mean age 29.3 months) | Parents | VC using Zoom | 12-week interventionists trained and coached parents to implement P-ESDM | Concurrent multiple-baseline design across participants | P-ESDM Parent Fidelity Rating System; P-ESDM Coaching Fidelity Rating System; Autism Impact Measure; social validity questionnaire | Parent fidelity increased during generalization and maintenance phases; Positive change in autism symptoms; parents were satisfied, and majority found it effective |
| Suess et al. (2020) | Four parent–child dyads (males with ASD; ages 3–6 years) | Parents | VC using Skype | Behavioral consultant coached caregivers to complete FA, Extinction baseline, FCT (3 contexts) and FCT in treatment context (1 h weekly) | Four Phases: (a) FA, (b) Extinction baseline in treatment context, (c) FCT in three alternative contexts, (d) FCT in treatment context | Individualized Target Mands and Target Tasks were recorded and coded, IOA |
Problem behavior reduced an average of 97.8% following initial alternative contexts FCT; mitigated resurgence of problem behaviors; generalized appropriate behaviors across participants/significant reductions in resurgence were found |
| Gerow et al., (2021a, b) | Seven parent–child dyads (six males, one female, with ASD, 3–11 years of age) | Parents | VC using VSee | Therapist coached parent during preference assessment; Provided written and verbal instructions, prompting, and feedback (during all phases: Brief FA and FCT sessions) | Brief FA: 4 or 5 randomized conditions; treatment evaluation was based on reversal design | Response per minute of target challenge behavior; TARF-R | Reduction in challenging behavior during FCT; Assessment strategy was found to be feasible and acceptable |
| Gerow et al., (2021a, b) | Four parent–child dyads (males with ASD, 5–9 years of age) | Parents | VC using VSee | Goal development (daily living skills) therapist provided instructions, prompting, and feedback for all phases (preference assessment, teaching trials, intervention) | Concurrent multiple-baseline design | Percentage of completed steps of task analysis | Accurate implementation led to increase in daily living skills across participants |
| Hao et al. (2021) | 30 parent–child dyads (matched on gender ratio Female: Male, 3:12, range of 23–86 months of age with ASD) | Parents | VC using Zoom | In-person and Telehealth group; Two group sessions and 6 weekly 1 h individual sessions—feedback was provided on implementation accuracy of SKILLS | Group differences | Initiations, responses, and NDW per minute, MLU; Reliability for dependent variables | No significant differences between intervention groups; significant gains based on NDW and MLU; parents’ increase fidelity of implementation of intervention |
| O’Brien et al. (2021) | One parent and child (3 years of age) with ASD | Parents | Vidyo teleconferencing software | 10 min of 60 min session was used for “check in,” 40 min used for FA or FCT sessions were conducted, 10 min feedback was provided to parent | Single-subject design | Data collected on target problem behaviors, independent requests for preferred items, Reliability data, IOA, TARF-R | FA indicated behaviors maintained by escape and access functions, FCT lead to reduction in problem behavior, by 7th session, 100% independent requesting; 100% independent requesting at 6-month follow-up; highly acceptable |
| Pierson et al. (2021) | Four children, three with ASD (5–7 years of age), one with Down Syndrome (6 years of age) | Parents | WebEx, Google Drive | Anticipatory set (preview elements of storybooks); Training consisted of didactic teaching of storybook DR intervention (following PEER); Coaching was synchronous 1 time per week, feedback provided | Multiple-probe-across-participants design | Parent implementation of modified DR intervention; Child answers to comprehension questions; IOA; social validity questionnaire | No changes in child responses were found for majority of participants; Parent-reported some difficulty with child behavior and intervention procedures |
| Sivaraman et al. (2021) | Six total dyads four parent–child dyads (three males, one female 6–8 years of age) and two therapist-child dyads (6–7 years of age), all with ASD | Parents | Video-calling platform on laptop (no specific VC program was reported) | Live coaching caregivers to teach face mask wearing; taught through graduated exposure, behavior shaping, and contingent reinforcement | Nonconcurrent multiple-baseline design | Duration of seconds wearing mask; Scored completed steps of hierarchy; TARF-R, IOA | All children tolerated wearing a mask for 10 min (target duration); Parents found the training to be useful and practical |
| Yi and Dixon (2021) | 13 parent–child dyads (11 males, 2 females with ASD, average age: 8 years) | Parents | VS using software (i.e., Zoom, Skye, GoToMeeting) | ACT group: 60-day telehealth ABA parent training curriculum included onboarding with brief ACT session, 5 self-paced lessons, 5 individual consultations with follow-up coaching. Control Group: same program with modifications of onboarding and progress monitoring (no ACT session) | RCT—group comparisons | Percentage of online lessons parents completed, average scores during knowledge checks; social validity questionnaires; IOA | Parents in ACT group finished more lessons; no differences in scores on knowledge checks; program was rated favorably by parents |
| Gibson et al. (2010) | One 4-year-old male with ASD and two preschool staff | Preschool staff | VC using Skype on desktops. Verbal feedback was transmitted via microphone system in the staff’s ear | Initial face-to-face FA, video chat consultation with teachers on how to do FCT, and immediate feedback given to teachers on their administration of the FCT during class using microphone system | ABAB design to evaluate the effectiveness of FCT intervention on reducing the child's behavior (12 sessions) | IOA, BIRS-R, Elopement (defined by consultants) | Reduction in elopement behavior from baseline to post-intervention, consultation procedures were found to be acceptable by teachers |
| Neely et al. (2016) | Three interventionists and three children (all with ASD, 4–8 years of age) | Interventionist | VC using Vsee on iPad or MacBook (recorded sessions at clinic) | Training package to teach novice interventionists incidental teaching for children (feedback on videos) | Concurrent multiple baseline across participants | Interventionist behavior: Frequency of communication opportunity, Child behavior: number of child's verbal mands, duration of training, IOA, treatment integrity, TEI-SF | All interventionists achieved high fidelity for 4 consecutive sessions, increased number of communication opportunities following training, two of the three interventionists were able to maintain high fidelity long term, each child increased their mands above levels at baseline |
| Barkaia et al. (2017) | Three therapists, three children (three males, two 4 years of age, one 6 years of age) | Therapist | VC using Skype and telephone audio connection using Viber | Baseline: coach to implement intervention for language development, coached watched 15 min and provided feedback Coaching: 15-min coaching session to the therapist | Concurrent multiple-baseline design | Therapist behaviors: Correct command sequences, positive consequences, Child behaviors: mands and echoics, social validity scale | Coaching helped increase treatment efficacy, therapists increased in levels of higher order comments and decreased in levels of direct commands, all children’s verbalization increased in responding from baseline, and children demonstrated increased echoic |
| Neely et al. (2018) | Two first-tier coaches six s-tier interventionists, paired with one child with ASD (3–7 years of age) | Coaches, interventionist | VC using Vsee on iPad (recorded sessions at clinic) | After target phase was set via VC, coaches conducted 5-min sessions with child, completed 1-h online module, set target phase via VC with interventionist, met target phase, and then taught interventionist via VC on target steps | Multiple-baseline design for remote incidental teaching, multi-probe design to evaluate the effects of coaches teaching interventionists to implement incidental teaching | Interventionist dependent variables (incidental teaching, communication opportunities), frequency of child requests, IOA, treatment integrity, TEI-SF, researcher-developed questionnaire | Incidental teaching and performance criteria were met with high fidelity, child participants increased their requests above baseline, communication opportunities were variable, high acceptability of intervention |
| D’Agostino et al., (2020) | Six preschool practitioners and 6 children (children between 3 and 4 years of age, only one child with ASD) | Preschool practitioners | VC using Zoom | Telehealth training of NDBI procedures with coaching sessions involving delayed feedback and video self-evaluation | Single case multiple probes across participants design | Practitioner behavior: frequency of target skill opportunity: Child behavior: target communication behavior, IOA, treatment fidelity, TSP questionnaire, TEIYD scale, IRP-15, researcher-developed questionnaire | A functional relationship between training and practitioner behavior, and between training and the frequency of child target communication behavior, increase in child communication opportunities related to increase in child behavior, high acceptably of training |
| Schlosser et al. (2020) | Seven children with ASD (five males, 6–8 years of age) | Interdisciplinary School Team | VC (no specific program reported) | Biweekly VC sessions to train and coach on VIS intervention procedures | Mixed-methods approach | Goal Attainment Scaling; CARS2-QPC, Communication Matrix, Adapted TEI-SF, Self-efficacy scale | Improved across 22 goals, more progress towards expressive than receptive goals; significant communication matrix scores pre vs. post-intervention; rated a highly acceptable intervention; self-efficacy improved over time |
| Singh et al. (2021) | Three adolescents with ASD (13, 17, and 19 years of age) | Therapists | VC using Zoom; WhatsApp | Real-time training in mindfulness and SoF vs. implementation of BSP intervention | Multiple-baseline design | Operational definition of self-injury (each instance counted as one event), AARP, Social validity questionnaire for participants adapted from SoF program | No significant differences in reduction of SIB between baseline and BSP; Significant reduction in SIB for SoF intervention, more social validity for SoF than BSP by parents and adolescents |
| Ruble et al. (2013) | 49 special education teachers and child dyads (children with ASD, 3–9 years of age) | Teachers and parents | VC using Adobe Connect Pro and a laptop webcam | COMPASS intervention: 3-h parent-teacher consultation and 1.5-h coaching sessions between clinician and teachers every 5 weeks for 20 weeks. Group 1: Placebo Control. Group 2: COMPASS followed by face-to-face coaching sessions. Group 3: COMPASS followed by web-based coaching sessions | RCT | OWLS, DAS, and Vineland-2 for original group equivalency, consultant adherence to COMPASS consultation protocol, consultant fidelity, teacher fidelity, PET-GAS | The study successfully found that parent consultation improves individualized outcomes, and the COMPASS and web-based coaching was found to be efficacious, although there were no significant group differences |
| Guðmundsóttir et al. (2017) | Two parent–child dyads (5-and 4-year-old with ASD) | Special Education Teacher and Parent | VC using Skype through Microsoft LifeCam Cinema | Training services on naturalistic behavioral interventions (Sunny Starts Program, DANCE) given to parents (1 h per session) | Multiple-baseline experimental design | IOA, Parents’ behaviors (teaching episodes), children’s behaviors (social attending, requesting) | Increase in children’s social attending skills, teaching parents via brief in-person situation training and on-going telehealth training increased their skills |
AARP Abbreviated Acceptability Rating Profile, ABA Applied Behavior Analysis, ABC Aberrant Behavior Checklist, ACT Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, ADOS Autism Diagnostic Schedule, ADOS-2 Autism Diagnostic Schedule-Second Edition, APCP Assessment of Preschool Children’s Participation, ASD Autism Spectrum Disorder, ASRS Autism Spectrum Rating Scale, BIRS Behavior Intervention Rating Scale, BIRS-R Behavior Intervention Rating Scale-Revised, BISWA Behavioral Implementation of Skills for Work Activities, BISPA Behavioral Implementation of Skills for Play Activities, BPS Being a Parent Scale, BSP Behavior Support Plan, CARS2-QPC Childhood Autism Rating Scale 2-Questionnaire for Parents or Caregivers, CBRS Child Behavior Rating Scale, CBT Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, CBT-CI Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Childhood Insomnia, MacArthur-CDI MacArthur Communicative Developmental Inventory, CES-D Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, CEWFS Computer-Email-Web Fluency Scale, CGI-I Clinical Global Impression-Improvement Scale, C-HOPE COMPASS for Hope, COMPASS Collaborative Model for Promoting Competence and Success, COPM-2 Canadian Occupational Performance Measure-Second Edition, CSQ Consultation Satisfaction Questionnaire, DAS Differential Ability Scale, DANCE Decide, Arrange, Now, Count and Contemplate, Enjoy, DD Developmental Disorders, DR Dialogic Reading, DTI Discrete Trial Intervention, ECBI Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory, EIBI Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention, ESDM Early Start Denver Model, FA Functional Assessment, FAI Functional Assessment Interview, FBA Functional Behavior Assessment, FCT Functional Communication Training, FIQ Family Impact Questionnaire, FRED-R Family Routines Exploration and Description-Revision, GAS Goal Attainment Scaling, GSRS Group Session Rating Scale, HRV Heart Rate Variability, HSQ-ASD Home Situation Questionnaire-ASD, IEP Individualized Education Program, ImPACT a telehealth-based parent-mediated intervention for young children with ASD, IOA Interobserver Agreement, iPics Internet-Based, Parent-Implemented Communication Strategies, IRP-15 Intervention Rating Profile-15, MBRS Maternal Behavior Rating Scale, M-CHAT Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers, MLU Mean length of utterance, MSEL Mullen Scales of Early Learning, NDBI Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Intervention, NDW Number of Different Words, OWLS Oral and Written Language Scales, PEER Prompt, Evaluate, Expand, and Repeat, P-ESDM Parent Coaching in the Early Start Denver Model, PET-GAS Psychometrically Equivalence Tested Goal Attainment Scaling, PSI Psychological Screening Inventory, PSI/SF Parental Stress Index/Short Form, PSOC Parenting Sense of Competence Scale, PTAS Parent Treatment Adherence Scale, PTP Parent Target Problems, RCT Randomized Controlled Trial, REAM Rapid Evaluation and Assessment Methodology, RIT Reciprocal Imitation Training, SCARED Screen for Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorder in Children, SCQ Social Communication Questionnaire, SDA Structured Descriptive Assessment, SIB Self-injurious Behavior, SKILLS Skills and Knowledge of Intervention for Language Learning Success, SoF Soles of the Feet, SRS Social Responsiveness Scale, SOL Time From Initial Lights Out Until Sleep Onset, SP-2 Sensory Profile-Second Edition, SRS-2 Social Responsiveness Scale-Second Edition, TARF Treatment Acceptability Rating Form, TARF-R Treatment Acceptability Rating Form-Revised, TEI Treatment Evaluation Inventory, TEI-SF Treatment Evaluation Inventory-Short Form, TEIYD Teacher Efficacy for the Inclusion of Young children with Disabilities Scale, ToMI Theory of Mind Inventory, TSP Target Skill Prioritization, TWT Time Awake From Lights Out Until Out of Bed, TST Time Awake From Lights Out Until Out of Bed Minus Time in Bed, VC Video Conferencing, VIS Visual Immersion System