Table 1.

Promising novel biomarkers in diagnostic approach to diabetic cardiomyopathy

Biomarker	Pathophysiological pathway	Supporting evidence
LncRNA (LIPCAR, MIAT, SENCR)	Epigenetic regulation of multiple genes involved in diabetes and cardiac dysfunction	Liu et al[171]; Yan et al[172]; Carter et al[173]; de Gonzalo-Calvo et al[174]
sST-2	IL-33 decoy receptor that tones down Th2 inflammatory response via the IL-33/ST2/sST2 axis	Fousteris et al[164]; Kiencke et al[165]
TGF-β	The main pro-fibrotic factor in heart failure: it modulates the fibroblast phenotype and function and mediates induction of EndoMT	Shaver et al[102]; Iglesias-De La Cruz et al[104]; Asbun et al[105]
Galectin-3	Mediator by which multiple molecules (e.g. angiotensin II and aldosterone) exert their pro-fibrotic activity and promote oxidative stress	Ho et al[146]; Ueland et al[147]; Sharma et al[148]
GDF-15	Regulator of inflammatory pathways involved in regulation of apoptosis, cell repair and cell growth	Berezin[123]; Dominguez-Rodriguez et al[130]

RNA: Ribonucleic acid; LncRNA: Long noncoding ribonucleic acid; LIPCAR: Long intergenic non-coding ribonucleic acid predicting cardiac remodeling; MIAT: Myocardial infarction-associated transcript; SENCR: Smooth muscle and endothelial cell-enriched migration/differentiation-associated long noncoding ribonucleic acid; sST2: Soluble form of suppression of tumorigenicity 2; GDF-15: Growth differentiation factor-15; TGF-β: Transforming growth factor-β; EndoMT: Endothelial-mesenchymal transition.