Table 2.
Summary of 3D printed scaffolds for bone regeneration covered in this review.
| Category | Sub-category | Materials | Biology evaluation | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Organic scaffolds | Polymer-based scaffolds | Collagen/dECM/silk fibroin | In vitro: cell viability, proliferation and osteogenic activities of MC3T3-E1 cells | [65] |
| PCL/PEG | In vitro: viability and osteogenic activities of MG63 cells | [66] | ||
| PCL/PANI microparticles | In vitro: viability and proliferation of hADSCs | [67] | ||
| PCL/PEDOT | In vitro: proliferation of MSCs | [68] | ||
| PEDOT:PSS | In vitro: osteogenic activities of MC3T3-E1 cells | [69] | ||
| PEDOT:PSS/GelMA |
In vitro: viability of C2C12s cells In vivo: biodegradation and biocompatibility in rat |
[70] | ||
| Bioprinting | Agarose/collagen | In vitro: osteogenic differentiation of MSCs | [71] | |
| Gelatin/hyaluronic acid/chondroitin sulfate/dextran/alginate/chitosan/heparin/PEG | In vitro: osteogenic activity of osteogenic sarcoma cell line (Saos-2) | [72] | ||
| PCL/GelMA/PLGA microparticles | In vitro: viability of fibroblasts | [73] | ||
| Inorganic scaffolds | Ceramics | Ca2MgSi2O7 bioceramic/45S5 bioactive glass/photosensitive resin |
In vitro: viability, proliferation, osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs and angiogenic activities of HUVECs In vivo: bone and blood vessels regeneration in rabbit femoral defects |
[74] |
| BCP |
In vitro: attachment, viability, proliferation and osteogenic and angiogenic activities of MC3T3-E1 cells; ERK1/2 inhibitor treatment analysis In vivo: regeneration of rabbit cranial bone defects |
[75] | ||
| metal-organic framework Cu-TCPP nanosheets/β-TCP |
In vitro: anti-tumor efficacy with NIR light; cell attachments, osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs and angiogenic activities of HUVECs In vivo: tumor ablation in nude mice; bone regeneration of rabbit femoral defects |
[76] | ||
| Mxene/bioactive glass |
In vitro: cytotoxicity and cell ablation of Saos-2 cells with NIR light; proliferation and differentiation of hBMSCs In vivo: photothermal performance and tumor ablation in nude mice; bone regeneration of rat cranial defects |
[77] | ||
| mesoporous silica/Mxene/bioactive glass |
In vitro: NO uptake and cell ablation of Saos-2 cells with NIR light; proliferation and differentiation of hBMSCs In vivo: photothermal performance and tumor ablation in nude mice; bone regeneration of rat cranial defects |
[78] | ||
| Metallic scaffolds | titanium |
In vitro: attachment, viability, proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs In vivo: the formation of new bone in rabbit femoral defects |
[79] | |
| tantalum |
In vitro: attachment, viability, proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs In vivo: bone formation in rabbit femoral defects |
[80] | ||
| magnesium | N.A. | [81] | ||
| iron | In vitro: cell attachments and cytotoxicity of MG63 cells | [82] | ||
| iron/HA | In vitro: viability and osteogenic differentiation of rabbit BMSCs | [83] | ||
| titanium/alginate/nHA | In vitro: attachment, viability, proliferation and osteogenic activities of pre-osteoblasts | [84] | ||
| titanium/nanodiamond | In vitro: attachment and proliferation of human fibroblasts and rat primary osteoblasts; anti-bacteria assay | [85] | ||
| titanium/autologous platelet -rich plasma |
In vitro: viability and osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs In vivo: regeneration of femoral defects in rabbit osteoporosis models |
[86] | ||
| Hybrid Scaffolds | N.A. | HA/carboxymethyl chitosan/polydopamine |
In vitro: cytotoxicity and attachment of MC3T3-E1 cells In vivo: biosafety and regeneration of rabbit femoral condyle defects |
[87] |
| tri-block poly (lactide-co-propylene glycol-co-lactide) dimethacrylate and hydroxyethyl methacrylate functionalized HA nanoparticles |
In vitro: cell viability, proliferation, and morphology of rMSCs In vivo: bone regeneration of rabbit femoral condyle defects |
[88] | ||
| PLGA/TCP/magnesium | In vivo: biosafety test and osteogenesis and angiogenesis in steroid associated osteonecrosis （SAON） rabbit model | [89] | ||
| silk fibroin/bioactive glass |
In vitro: cell attachment, viability, proliferation and osteogenic activities of hBMSCs In vivo: heterotopic bone formation |
[90] | ||
| PCL/decellularized porcine bone |
In vitro: cell viability and osteogenic activities of hMSCs In vivo: bone regeneration of rat cranial bone defects |
[91] | ||
| Gelatin/Alginate/CaCl2 | N.A. | [92] | ||
| CPC/Alginate | In vitro: cell viability and osteogenic differentiation of MSCs | [93] | ||
| CPC/alginate-methylcellulose blend | In vitro: cell viability of hTERT-MSC | [94] | ||
| polyurethane acrylate elastomer | N.A. | [95] | ||
| Ca7MgSi4O16 bioceramic/sodium alginate/Pluronic F-127 |
In vitro: cell viability and osteogenic activities of BMSCs and angiogenic activities of HUVECs In vivo: bone regeneration of rabbit radius segmental defect model |
[96] |
dECM: decellularized extracellular matrix, PCL: poly(ε-caprolactone), PEG: polyethylene glycol, PANI: polyaniline, PEDOT: poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), PEDOT:PSS: poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate), PLGA: poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), BCP: biphasic calcium phosphate, Cu-TCPP: copper coordinated tetrakis (4-carboxyphenyl) porphyrin, β-TCP: β-tricalcium phosphate, HA: hydroxyapatite, hADSCs: human adipose-derived stem cells, MSCs: mesenchymal stem cells, hBMSCs: human bone mesenchymal stem cells, HUVECs: human umbilical vein endothelial cells, CPC: calcium phosphate cement, hTERT-MSC: human mesenchymal stem cell line expressing hTERT (human telomerase reverse transcriptase)