Figure - PMC

Skip to main content

An official website of the United States government

Here's how you know

Here's how you know

Official websites use .gov
A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS
A lock ( ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

View full-text article in PMC

. 2021 May 28;8:667370. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2021.667370

Search in PMC
Search in PubMed
View in NLM Catalog
Add to search

Copyright © 2021 Geisslitz, Shewry, Brouns, America, Caio, Daly, D'Amico, De Giorgio, Gilissen, Grausgruber, Huang, Jonkers, Keszthelyi, Larré, Masci, Mills, Møller, Sorrells, Svensson, Zevallos and Weegels.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

PMC Copyright notice

Hypothetical mechanism of ATI bioactivity as innate triggers of intestinal and extraintestinal immune activation after ingestion of gluten containing foods (e.g., wheat, spelt, rye, and barley). ATIs pass the intestinal epithelium as intact proteins and stimulate the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) on monocytes (MC), macrophages (MΦ), and dendritic cells (DC). This leads to potentiation of existing adaptive immune activation and an increase of antigen-presenting cells (APC). These serve as adjuvants for an ongoing adaptive T-cell response and intensify chronic and autoimmune diseases. It is supposed that the APC occur at extraintestinal sites, e.g., mesenteric lymph nodes. IEL, intraepithelial lymphocyte; HLA, human leukocyte antigen. Figure modified from Schuppan et al. (85).