Table 2.
Differences in reactions to graphic warning labels by label interpretation (main effects)
| Response Frequencies | Outcomes Adj. Mean (SE), p-value and Cohen’s d | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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| Labels | What do you think is the main point the label is trying to show? Response options: | N (%) | Counterarguing | Perceived effectiveness | Harmfulness of smoking to others |
| Man smoking with tracheotomy (Label 1) | It is so hard to stop smoking that some people keep smoking through a hole in their throat * | 819 (58.9%) | 2.47 (0.12) | 3.28 (0.04)a | 5.25 (0.15)a |
| The chemicals in cigarette smoke are so dangerous that they can burn a hole in someone’s throat | 532 (38.3%) | 2.68 (0.13), p=0.056 d=0.11 | 3.34 (0.05), p=0.187 d=0.07 | 5.48 (0.15), p=0.079 d=0.10 | |
| Cigarette smoking is more harmful to African American men than to other groups | 40 (2.9%) | 3.28 (0.29), p=0.006 d=0.45 | 2.92 (0.11)a, p<0.001 d=−0.55 | 5.12 (0.35), p=0.712 d=−0.06 | |
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| Baby exposed to smoke (Label 2) | Being around smoke from cigarettes can be bad for children * | 1282 (93.2%) | 2.36 (0.11) | 3.44 (0.04)a | 5.61 (0.13) |
| Allowing children to smoke cigarettes is harmful to them | 93 (6.8%) | 3.52 (0.21)a, p<0.001 d=0.35 | 3.26 (0.07), p=0.009 d=−0.28 | 5.03 (0.25), p=0.014 d=−0.26 | |
| Smoke from cigarettes is only harmful when you can see it | 0 (0%) | NA | NA | NA | |
|
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| Woman Crying (Label 3) | Cigarette smoke can kill loved ones who don’t smoke * | 1046 (77.1%) | 2.47 (0.09)a | 3.26 (0.03)a | 5.19 (0.11) |
| Cigarette smoking can cause serious depression in some people | 183 (13.5%) | 3.16 (0.16)a, p<0.001 d=0.34 | 3.06 (0.06), p<0.001 d=−0.27 | 5.19 (0.11), p=0.890 d=−0.01 | |
| Cigarette smoking is more harmful to women | 128 (9.4%) | 3.51 (0.19), p<0.001 d=0.52 | 3.21 (0.07), p=0.522 d=−0.06 | 4.41 (0.22), p<0.001 d=−0.34 | |
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| Diseased lip (Label 4) | Smoking can cause serious mouth disease * | 1268 (91.0%) | 2.61 (0.11)a | 3.42 (0.04)a | 5.42 (0.13)a |
| Smoking can cause people’s teeth to get cavities | 62 (4.5%) | 3.47 (0.25), p<0.001 d=0.45 | 3.11 (0.08), p<0.001 d=−0.51 | 5.11 (0.3), p=0.297 d=−0.14 | |
| Smoking can cause burns on people’s lips | 63 (4.5%) | 3.15 (0.27), p=0.049 d=0.25 | 3.10 (0.09), p<0.001 d=−0.47 | 5.1 (0.31), p=0.300 d=−0.13 | |
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| Oxygen mask on man’s face (Label 5) | Cigarette smoking can cause sudden health problems * | 1019 (72.6%) | 2.76 (0.14)a | 3.3 (0.04)a | 5.45 (0.12)a |
| People who smoke cigarettes may need a mask to breathe | 257 (18.3%) | 2.76 (0.14), p=0.017 d=0.17 | 3.30 (0.05), p=0.970 d<−0.01 | 5.16 (0.17), p=0.057 d=−0.13 | |
| Cigarette smoking is most harmful when people are older | 128 (9.1%) | 3.17 (0.18), p<0.001 d=0.38 | 3.01 (0.06)a, p<0.001 d=−0.43 | 4.96 (0.21)a, p=0.016 d=0.23 | |
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| Baby in an incubator (Label 6) | Cigarette smoking while pregnant can cause health problems for babies * | 1202 (85.1%) | 2.45 (0.10)a | 3.33 (0.04)a | 5.31 (0.13)a |
| It is important to keep babies protected from cigarette smoke | 124 (8.8%) | 2.78 (0.18), p=0.063 d=0.18 | 3.19 (0.06), p=0.028 d=−0.21 | 5.09 (0.24), p=0.310 d=−0.10 | |
| Cigarette smoking while pregnant makes babies cry more | 87 (6.2%) | 3.09 (0.22), p=0.003 d=0.33 | 3.24 (0.08), p=0.249 d=−0.13 | 4.63 (0.28), p=0.012 d=−0.28 | |
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| Man with I quit t-shirt (Label 7) | People who quit smoking will have less chance of getting a disease * | 1205 (86.2%) | 2.42 (0.09) | 3.20 (0.03)a | 4.17 (0.13)a |
| Even tough men can quit smoking | 150 (10.7%) | 3.03 (0.16), p<0.001 d=0.33 | 2.94 (0.06), p<0.001 d=−0.39 | 3.80 (0.24), p=0.111 d=−0.14 | |
| People who quit smoking will get a free t-shirt | 43 (3.1%) | 3.32 (0.31), p=0.004 d=0.45 | 2.99 (0.11), p=0.070 d=−0.28 | 3.26 (0.42), p=0.035 d=−0.33 | |
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| Healthy/Diseased lung (Label 8) | Smoking can cause death from lung disease * | 940 (69.5%) | 2.26 (0.12)a | 3.36 (0.04) | 5.89 (0.15)a |
| Smoking can cause the organs in people’s bodies to turn black | 311 (23.0%) | 2.93 (0.15)a, p<0.001 d=0.34 | 3.24 (0.05)a, p=0.006 d=−0.18 | 5.31 (0.17), p<0.001 d=−0.26 | |
| Smoking will not harm someone until their lungs look dirty | 102 (7.5%) | 3.34 (0.22), p<0.001 d=0.55 | 3.35 (0.07), p=0.893 d=−0.01 | 4.97 (0.26), p<0.001 d=−0.41 | |
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| Man with chest staples (Label 9) | People can die from smoking cigarettes * | 1043 (77.7%) | 2.50 (0.10) | 3.26 (0.03)a | 5.42 (0.11)a |
| People may need surgery if they smoke cigarettes | 194 (14.5%) | 2.98 (0.17)a, p=0.003 d=0.23 | 3.27 (0.06), p=0.902 d=−0.11 | 4.99 (0.19), p=0.014 d=−0.19 | |
| People who have had surgery should not smoke cigarettes | 105 (7.8%) | 3.67 (0.21), p<0.001 d=0.60 | 3.19 (0.07), p=0.290 d=0.01 | 4.66 (0.24), p=0.001 d=−0.33 | |
*
indicates “preferred” interpretation of label
a
indicates a significant difference between non-smokers and smokers; see Table 3 for significant interactions
Note. Response order was varied in the survey to disguise the preferred response. All models include covariates: age, sex, race, low income, education, novelty of label, smoking status, and an interaction term of smoking status and label interpretation.
Note: Raw p-values are shown above. After controlling for the false discovery rate, it was found that p-values >0.016 were >0.05 after adjustment. Thus, 4/33 rejected null hypotheses would not be rejected after adjustment. The values that remained statistically significant after the adjustment are bolded.