Table 1.
Therapeutic effects of EVs derived from different cell sources.
| Cell Type | EV Population | Administration Method | Disease Model | Biological Effect | Bioactive Molecule in EVs |
[Ref.] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| BMMSCs | EVs | Intravenous Injection | Unilateral nephrectomy + unilateral IRI (AKI) | Enhancement of tubular cell proliferation, anti-apoptosis and reduced fibrosis in long term | - | [20] |
| EVs | Intravenous Injection | Glycerol-induced AKI | Cell proliferation, support of morphologic and functional recovery | mRNAs (e.g., POLR2E, SUMO-1) | [21] | |
| EVs | Intravenous Injection | 5/6 subtotal nephrectomy | Reduced tubular atrophy Improved kidney function |
- | [22] | |
| EVs | Intravenous Injection | Unilateral ureteral obstruction | Improved kidney function Protection against EMT and kidney failure |
miRNAs (e.g., miR-29, miR-30, miR-210-3p) | [23] | |
| EVs | Intravenous Injection | Glycerol-induced AKI | Impairment of morphology recovery and kidney function | miRNAs (e.g., miR-483–5p, miR-191, miR-28–3p, miR-423, miR-24) |
[12] | |
| EVs | Intravenous Injection | Cisplatin-induced AKI | Reduction in inflammation and cell death, increased cell proliferation | - | [24] | |
| EVs | Renal intracapsular injection | Bilateral IRI | Decreased cell apoptosis and inflammation, endothelial cell proliferation, fibrosis reduction | - | [25] | |
| EVs | Intra-arterial injection | Cisplatin-induced AKI | Improved kidney function, cell proliferation, reduced inflammation | - | [26] | |
| ADMSCs | EVs | Intravenous Injection | Cisplatin-induced AKI | Reduction in apoptosis, oxidative stress and inflammation | - | [27] |
| EVs | Intravenous Injection | DOCA-salt hypertensive model | Prevention of kidney fibrosis and inflammatory response | - | [28] | |
| EVs | Renal intracapsular injection | Bilateral IRI | Inhibition of apoptosis, immunomodulation, recovery of intracellular ATP, preservation of mitochondria | - | [29] | |
| Exosomes | Intravenous Injection | Sepsis-AKI | Improved kidney function, reduced inflammatory cytokines release, reduced mortality | - | [30] | |
| EVs | Intra-arterial injection | Unilateral renal stenosis | Increased cell proliferation, angiogenesis, immunomodulation | Senescence-associated miRNA (e.g., miR-222-3p, miR-143-5p) | [31] | |
| EVs | Intra-arterial injection | Unilateral renal stenosis + metabolic syndrome | Reduced inflammation, improved medullary oxygenation, reduced fibrosis | IL-10, TGF-β | [9,32] | |
| EPCs | EVs | Intravenous Injection | Sepsis-AKI | Reduced inflammation and apoptosis | miR-93-5p | [33] |
| KPCs | EVs | Intravenous Injection | Unilateral IRI + unilateral nephrectomy | Amelioration of kidney function, reduced ischemic damage | miRNAs (e.g., miR-299-5p, miR-23a-3p, miR-302b-3p) | [34] |
| HLSCs | EVs | Intravenous Injection | Diabetic nephropathy | Prevention and reversal of the progression of glomerular and interstitial fibrosis | miRNAs (e.g., miR-146a-5p, miR-17-5p, miR-106a-5p, miR-155-5p) | [26] |
| EVs | Intravenous Injection | Glycerol-induced AKI | Improved kidney function and cell proliferation, reduced tubular necrosis | - | [35] | |
| PDMSCs | EVs | Intravenous Injection | Bilateral IRI | Reduced inflammation, inhibited cell apoptosis, antioxidant effects | miR-200a-3p | [36] |
| EVs | Intrarenal injection | Unilateral IRI | Enhanced angiogenesis and cell proliferation, inhibited endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis | - | [37] | |
| EVs | Intrarenal injection | Bilateral IRI | Improved kidney function, cell proliferation, decreased tubular injury, cell death and fibrosis | miR-let-7a-5p | [38] | |
| EVs | Intravenous Injection | Unilateral IRI + unilateral nephrectomy | Enhanced angiogenesis, mitigated fibrosis | VEGF (protein) | [39] | |
| EVs | Intravenous Injection | Unilateral IRI | Increased cell proliferation | - | [40] | |
| EVs | Intravenous Injection | Unilateral IRI + unilateral nephrectomy | Reduced kidney fibrosis, improved kidney function. | - | [41] | |
| Exosomes | Intravenous Injection | Unilateral ureteral obstruction | Reduced kidney fibrosis, upregulation of SIRT1, modulation of angiogenesis | - | [42] | |
| iPSCMSCs | EVs | Intravenous Injection | Bilateral IRI | Support to tissue recovery, reduction in necroptosis | Specific protein 1 (SP1) (protein) | [43] |
| iPSCs | EVs | Subcapsular injection | Bilateral IRI | Reduce cell death and inflammation, protection of mitochondria | - | [44] |
Abbreviations: BMMSCs (bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells); ADMSCs (adipose-derived mesenchymal stromal cells); EPCs (endothelial progenitor cells); KPCs (kidney progenitor cells); HLSCs (human liver stem cells); PDMSCs (perinatal-derived mesenchymal stem cells); iPSCs (induced pluripotent stem cells); iPSCMSCs (iPSC-derived mesenchymal stromal cells); IRI (ischemia-reperfusion injury); AKI (acute kidney injury); EMT (epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition).