Figure 3.

The signaling pathways of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and their regulations by intracellular ncRNAs in innate immune responses. The molecules released from microbial pathogens (pathogen-associated molecular pattern, PAMPs) or endogenous danger molecules released from damaged cells (damage-associated molecular pattern, DAMP) can bind to TLRs and then activate intracellular adaptor molecules MyD88 or TRIF. A number of ncRNAs may participate in the modulation of NF-κB and IRF3/7 which enter the nucleus to determine the futures of macrophages differentiation to proinflammatory M1 or anti-inflammatory M2 subpopulation. MyD88: myeloid differentiation factor 88, TRIF: Toll/IL-1 receptor-containing adaptor inducing IFN-β, IRF: interferon regulatory factor.