Table 1.

Prognostic and diagnostic markers carried within NVU component-derived exosomes.

NVU Component	Exosome Cargo	Target	Effects of Dysregulation	References
Neural-derived exosomes	miR-181c-3p	Downregulating CXCL1 in astrocytes	Protective effects on neuroinflammation	Song et al. [40]
	miR-98	Targeting PAFR	Inhibit microglial phagocytosis; Ameliorate ischemia-induced neuronal death	Yang et al. [41]
	miR-132	Regulating VE-cadherin by targeting eef2k	Maintain vascular integrity	Xu et al. [42]
Oligodendrocyte-derived exosomes	Antioxidant enzymes (catalase and SOD1)	Activating pro-survival pathways (Akt, ERK1, and ERK2)	Promote neuronal survival; Enhance stress tolerance	Fröhlich et al. [50]
Astrocyte-derived exosomes	miR-190b	Targeting Atg7	Inhibit apoptosis; Suppress autophagy; Ameliorate ischemia-induced neuronal damage	Pei et al. [59,60]
	circSHOC2	Acting on the miR-7670-3p/SIRT1 axis; Regulating autophagy	Inhibit apoptosis; Promote autophagy; Ameliorate neuronal damage	Chen et al. [62]
	miR-361	Downregulating the AMPK/mTOR pathway and targeting CTSB	Suppress cell apoptosis; Ameliorate nerve damage	Bu et al. [63]
	miR-34c	Downregulating the NF-κB/MAPK axis by targeting TLR7	Suppress cell apoptosis; Ameliorate nerve damage	Wu et al. [64]
	miR-30c-2-3p ↓ miR-326-5p ↓ (from Sema3A inhibitor-treated ischemic As-Exos)	Increasing prostaglandin D2 synthase	Suppress astrocyte activation; Promote axonal outgrowth and functional recovery	Hira et al. [65]
	synapsin 1	-	Increase neurite outgrowth and survival; Modulate neuron–glia interaction	Wang et al. [66]
	miR-92b-3p	-	Ameliorate ischemia-induced neuronal apoptosis and injury	Xu et al. [70]
Microglia-derived exosomes	miR-124 from Mi2-Exos)	Targeting USP14	Attenuate ischemic brain injury, neural deficits, apoptosis; Promote neuronal survival	Song et al. [73]
		Downregulating STAT3	Reduce glial scar formation; Improve post-stroke recovery; Inhibit the migration and proliferation of astrocytes	Li et al. [74]
		Increasing Sox2, decreasing Notch1 expression	Promote astrocyte-to-neural progenitor cell transition
	miRNA-26a (from IL-4 polarized Mi-Exos)	-	Promote angiogenesis	Tian et al. [75]
	miR-424-5p	Regulating the FGF2/STAT3 pathway	Induce cell damage and permeability of BMECs	Xie et al. [76]
Endothelial cell-derived exosomes	miR-126-3p	-	Increase neurite outgrowth; Protect PC12 cells from nerve damage and apoptosis	Gao et al. [81]
	miR-27a miR-19a miR-298 miR-195	Targeting Sema6A, PTEN, and RhoA	Promote the axonal growth of cortical neurons	Zhang et al. [82]
	miR-126	-	Promote axon, myelin, and vascular density and M2 macrophage polarization in diabetic stroke; Improve functional and cognitive functional outcomes	Venkat et al. [85]
Endothelial progenitor cell-derived exosomes	miR-210	Improving mitochondrial function	Improve angiogenic function; Decrease apoptosis and reactive oxygen species production	Ma et al. [84]
	miR-126	Downregulating cleaved caspase-3; Upregulating VEGFR2	Promote neurogenesis and angiogenesis; Improve neurological function recovery	Wang et al. [86]

Abbreviations: CXCL1, chemokine CXC motif ligand 1; PAFR, platelet activating factor receptor; VE-cadherin, vascular endothelial cadherin; eef2k, eukaryotic elongation factor 2 kinase; SOD1, superoxide dismutase 1; ERK1 and ERK2, extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases 1 and 2; Atg7, autophagy-related gene 7; SIRT1, sirtuin 1; AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; CTSB, cathepsin B; NF-κB, nuclear factor-kappa B; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; TLR7, toll-like receptor 7; Sema3A, semaphorin 3A; As-Exos, astrocytes-derived exosomes; Mi2-Exos, M2 microglia-derived exosomes; USP14, ubiquitin-specific protease 14; STAT3, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; IL-4, interleukin-4; FGF2, basic fibroblast growth factor; BMEC, brain microvascular endothelial cell; Sema 6A, semaphorin 6A; PTEN, phosphatase and tensin homolog; RhoA, ras homolog family member A; VEGFR2, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2.