Table 2.
Summary of studies dealing with more than one viruses
| MS2 and T4 bacteriophages | Degradation of free and nano-bound RhB by direct UV photolysis, UV/H2O2 AOP and solar light-induced photocatalysis |
1) Minor Rhodamine B degradation was shown by direct UV and solar light 2) A nearly linear Rhodamine B degradation was found in the presence of a solid catalyst by UV/H2O2 and photocatalysis/photosensitization 3) A significant adsorption of soluble (free) Rhodamine B was recorded on bismuth-based catalyst vs. no adsorption of virus-bound (nano-bound) Rhodamine B on this catalyst or of any form of the dye on titanium dioxide 4) Virus-bound Rhodamine B showed high potential as an indicator of advanced oxidation process |
Shabat-Hadas et al., 2017 |
| MS2 bacteriophage, and phages T4, and T7 | UV/H2O2 advanced oxidation |
1) Bacteriophages T4 in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) were sensitive to > 295 nm filtered UV irradiation (without H2O2), while MS2 was very resistant 2) addition of H2O2 at 25 mg/l in the presence of filtered UV irradiation over a 15 min reaction time did not result in any additional disinfection of virus T4 3) an additional one log inactivation for T7 and 2.5-logs for MS2 were obtained |
Mamane et al., 2007 |
| MS2 bacteriophage, and phages phi X 174 and T4 | Advanced UV/H2O2 oxidation process |
1) The viral abatement was not affected by the presence of dyes but the addition of hydrogen peroxide improved it. 2) The addition of 0.2 M H2O2 at 70 mJ/cm2 enhanced the MS2 abatement by two logs, while was found to have no effect on phi X 174 and T4 phages. 3) The presence of viruses caused the reduction of the bleaching of fluorescent dyes due to restricted availability of hydroxyl radicals and their preferential involvement in virus inactivation |
Timchak & Gitis, 2012 |
| MS2 bacteriophage, and phages φX174, and PRD-1 | Ozone and hydrogen peroxide | The ozone/hydrogen peroxide process was found to have a significant microbicidal effect. MS2 bacteriophage, and phages φX174, and PRD-1 showed a reduction of approximately 6-log | Sommer et al., 2004 |
|
MS2 bacteriophage and Pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV) |
Two pilot-scale advanced water treatment plants were compared. The two treatment approaches included a carbon-based treatment process (flocculation/sedimentation, ozone-biofiltration, granular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption, ultraviolet (UV) disinfection; 20,000 L/day) and a membrane-based treatment process (ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, UV-hydrogen peroxide advanced oxidation; 160,000 L/day) | In both advanced water treatment processes a > 8-log removal of MS2 and > 6-log removal of Pepper mild mottle virus was achieved | Vaidya et al., 2019 |
| MS2 bacteriophage and Echovirus | Photo-Fenton process (effects of reactant concentration, H2O2, Fe2 + , Fe3 + , and solar irradiance) |
1) The solar exposure/Fe3 + treatment was strongly dependent on the concentration of iron and the intensity of solar irradiance 2) A complete inactivation was recorded (from 106 PFU mL-1 to the detection limit) with 1 mg L-1 of Fe3 + and 60 min of solar irradiance (45 W 40 m-2) 3) The abatement of MS2 with the photo-Fenton process (solar exposure/H2O2/Fe2 + /3 +) performed with Fe3 + , was faster compared to that with Fe2 + (detection limit reached at 20 min and 50 min, respectively). 4) Echovirus complete inactivation by the photo-Fenton process was slower (reached after 120 min) probably due to the competition between the present organic matter in this analysis and Echovirus, for oxidative species |
Ortega-Gomez et al., 2015 |
| Bacteroides bacteriophages ϕB124-14, ϕcrAssphage, and Pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV) | Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) advanced treatment and full advanced treatment (FAT) train |
1) PMMoV, ϕB124-14, and ϕcrAssphage were detected in the MBR feed at concentrations of approximately 103 gene copies (gc)/mL, 105 gc/mL, and 106 gc/mL, respectively 2) Only PMMoV was detected above the limit of quantification in the MBR filtrate (25 ± 8 gc/mL) 3) Viral Log removal values were found to be 1.4 ± 0.5 for PMMoV, > 3.9 ± 0.3 for ϕB124-14, and > 6.2 ± 0.3 for ϕcrAssphage |
Papp et al., 2020 |
| Adenovirus, and bacteriophages MS2, φX174 | Solar Disinfection |
1) φX174 was more sensitive to the direct inactivation with the highest quantum yield (1.4 × 10 − 2), compared to MS2 (2.9 × 10 − 3) or adenovirus (2.5 × 10 − 4) 2) Second-order rate constants were found to range from 1.7 × 107 to 7.0 × 109 M − 1 s − 1 and showed the following sequence: MS2 > adenovirus > phiX174 3) A predictive model was used to assess the solar disinfection of MS2 and phiX174 in a natural water sample and approximated that of adenovirus within a factor of 6 4) Viral abatement was mainly performed by direct processes, although indirect inactivation by 1O2 supported also the disinfection of adenovirus and MS2 |
Mattle et al., 2015 |
| Adenovirus, and somatic and male-specific coliphage |
Advanced oxidation-based Net-zero water (NZW) pilot system (septic tank, membrane bioreactor (MBR), aluminum electrocoagulation (EC), flocculation, vacuum ultrafiltration, peroxone or UV-hydrogen peroxide advanced oxidation, chlorine disinfection, and point of use granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration) |
No viruses were found in the treated water, although adenovirus genetic material was detected probably due to the presence of inactive viral particles in hydraulic dead zones | Gassie et al., 2016 |
| Adenovirus |
Low-dose UV/H2O2 advanced oxidation |
1) A UV dose of approximately 200 mJ/cm2 from a low-pressure source (emitting at 253.7 nm) was needed for a 4-log reduction of adenovirus 2) Addition of H2O2 (10 mg/L) caused a 4-log viral abatement at a dose of 120 mJ/cm2 |
Bounty et al., 2012 |
| Adenovirus (human adenovirus type 5) | Photo-electro-oxidation process |
1) A 60 min treatment by the photo-electro-oxidation process caused an adenovirus reduction of 7 log10. 2) Exposure of 75 min was required for the complete abatement of DNAse-treated samples, while completely non-viable adenoviruses were obtained after 30 min |
Monteiro et al., 2015 |
| Norovirus genotype I and II, and JC virus |
Single and catalytic ozonation (by a volcanic rock) |
Catalytic ozonation caused the complete abatement of all target viruses (Norovirus genotype I and II and JC virus), while JC virus could not be eliminated even after 150 min of treatment by single ozonation |
Gomes et al., 2019 |
|
Eleven (11) different virus types (pepper mild mottle virus, aichi virus, noroviruses genogroup I, II, and IV, enterovirus, sapovirus, rotavirus group-A, adenovirus, and JC and BK polyomaviruses) |
Advanced Bardenpho technology |
1) Advanced Bardenpho wastewater treatment was proved to be more efficient compared to conventional treatments, 2) Aichi virus was found to be a conservative index virus for the assessment of viral removal in wastewater treatment 3) Bardenpho processes were the major sources of virus removal probably because of virus sorption to solids |
Schmitz et al., 2016 |
| Enterovirus | Treatment train consisting of ozone, biological activated carbon, microfiltration, reverse osmosis, and ultraviolet light with an advanced oxidation process |
1) Performance distribution functions (PDFs) evidenced treatment that consistently surpassed the 12-log thresholds for virus, (as required for potable reuse in California) 2) Application of free chlorine disinfection during the treatment, achieved a median annual infection risk by enterovirus of 1.5 × 10–14 (no failures) and a maximum annual value of 2.1 × 10–5 (assuming one 24-h failure per year) |
Pecson et al., 2017 |
| Coxsackievirus B3 | Two different peracetic acid formulations (15 and 22%) and low-pressure ultraviolet irradiation |
1) Coxsackievirus B3 was found to be highly sensitive to low-pressure ultraviolet irradiation at 20 mJ/cm2, while it was very resistant to peracetic acid with ≤ 1 Log10 tissue culture infectious dose 50% assay (TCID50) reduction to concentrations ≤ 50 mg/L at a contact time of 15 min 2) Simultaneous application of 3 mg/L peracetic acid with 20 mJ/cm2 low-pressure ultraviolet irradiation caused a TCID50 decrease of approximately ~ 4-Log10 |
Kibbee & Ormeci, 2020 |