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. 2021 Jun 15;11:12612. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-92052-y

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Morphological defense expression in D. longicephala exposed to predators in the 3rd instar. (A) Parameters were directly determined at 0 h (3rd instar), and subsequently monitored after 24 h (4th instar), and 48 h (5th instar). Crest height shows a tendency towards an increase in predator-exposed D. longicephala after 24 h (P = 0.061; t = − 1.91; df = 57). After 48 h predator-exposed individuals have a significantly increased crest height compared to controls (P = 0.01; t = − 2.64; df = 68). Alpha corrected levels of significance: *P ≤ 0.017; ***P ≤ 0.0003. (B) Predator exposure started in the 5th instar and parameters were directly determined at 0 h (5th instar), and subsequently after 24 h (6th instar). Crest height is significantly increased after 24 h predator exposure (P ≤ 0.001; t = −4.18; df = 44). Alpha corrected levels of significance: ***P ≤ 0.0005; Table S1.