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. 2021 Jun 15;11:12612. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-92052-y

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Structural plasticity underlying morphological defense expression (A) 24 h predator exposure starting from the 3rd instar, significantly induced an increase in pc/dc-complex volume compared to the controls (P = 0.011; t = 2.73; df = 28). This increase was also observed after 48 h predator-exposure (P = 0.014; t = − 2.59; df = 33). (A.1, A.2, A.3). We detected no significant differences in OG volume between treatments. We observed a significant increase in OG volume between instar 3 and instar 5 in both treatments (control ANOVA: F_(2;13) = 9.63 P = 0.003 Tukey: P = 0.002; induced ANOVA: F_(2;14) = 12.07 P = 0.001 Tukey: P ≤ 0.001). Alpha corrected levels of significance: * P ≤ 0.017; (B) When exposed to predators from the 5th instar onwards, the pc/dc-complex volume shows a tendency towards an increase after 24 h predator exposure compared to the control (P = 0.049; t = − 2.19; df = 12) and to the 5th instar (P = 0.036; t = − 2.42; df = 10) Alpha corrected levels of significance: *P ≤ 0.025. (C) We detected no significant differences in nerve cell numbers between treatments. We found a tendency towards an increased nerve cell number in naïve individuals in the 5th instar compared to the 3rd instar, when the animals were exposed to predators from the 3rd instar onwards (ANOVA: F_(2;98) = 2.64 P = 0.077 Tukey: P = 0.076) Alpha corrected levels of significance: * P ≤ 0.025. (D) When exposed to predators from the 5th instar onwards, we find no differences in nerve cell numbers between treatments or instars. Alpha corrected levels of significance: *P ≤ 0.017.