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. 2021 Jun 15;11:12612. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-92052-y

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Functional plasticity underlying morphological defense expression. (A) When exposed to predators from the 3rd instar onwards, the number of gephyrin-labelled cells is significantly increased after 24 h predator-exposure compared to the control (P = 0.013; t = − 2.56; df = 57) and to the 3rd instar (ANOVA: F_(2;97) = 3.12 P = 0.049 Tukey: P = 0.039). (B) When exposed to predators from the 5^th instar onwards, the number of gephyrin-labelled cells is significantly increased after 24 h predator exposure compared to the control (P ≤ 0.001; t = − 3.63; df = 44). (C) The number of gephyrin-labelled cells per nerve cells is significantly increased compared to the control after 24 h predator exposure, when the animals were exposed to predators from the 3rd instar onwards (P = 0.011; t = − 2.65; df = 57). (D) When exposed to predators from the 5th instar, the ratio of gephyrin-labelled cells/nerve cells is significantly increased compared to the control after 24 h predator exposure (P ≤ 0.001; t = − 3.41; df = 44). (A, C) Alpha corrected levels of significance: *P ≤ 0.017. (B, D) Alpha corrected levels of significance: **P ≤ 0.005; ***P ≤ 0.0005. Boxplots show median (middle line), 25th to 75th percentiles (box) and whiskers show highest and lowest value within 1.5× the interquartile range (1.5× below the 25th percentile and 1.5× above the 75th percentile), respectively. Dots indicate outliers > 1.5× the interquartile range.