TABLE 2.

Ecological observations in or around carrion that can be used as indicators of ecosystem structure and function

Observation	Link to Ecosystem Structure and Function	Method of measurement and associated metrics	Example	Strength/Weakness
Carrion biomass and dispersion	Contribution to trophic processes and ecosystem stocks and flows as well as understanding the relative contribution of scavenging versus predation in ecosystems and how energy flows through food webs.	Time to carrion removal or proportion, weight, or type of bones remaining following decomposition. Quantities derived from individual carcasses (body mass, consumers, and rates of decay) can be scaled up using population metrics to infer carrion biomass at the ecosystem level. Scavenger movement and diet responses to changes in carrion biomass can be accessed via tracking and scat analyses to assess dispersion.	Barton, Evans, et al. (2019)	Strength: Biomass loss can be inferred easily via observation, cameras, or by weighing the carcass at set intervals. Weakness: Dispersion studies would be intensive and expensive.
Soil biogeochemistry	Functional ability of scavengers to remove carrion which influences nutrient transfer from carrion to soils.	Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and pH levels in soils before, during, and after decomposition.	Keenan, Schaeffer, et al. (2018)	Strength: Soil analyses are well established and can be easily collected under carcasses. Weakness: Costs and expertize can be prohibitive.
Soil invertebrates	Trophic processing of carrion tissues and elevated bacterial loads that enter the soil profile.	Densities of soil nematodes and other invertebrates at carcass decomposition hotspots.	Szelecz et al. (2016)	Strength: Samples can be easily collected under carcasses. Weakness: Taxonomic expertize is needed.
Vegetation responses	Functional ability of scavengers to remove carrion which influences nutrient transfer from carrion to soils and subsequent vegetation responses.	Abundance, richness, and diversity of vegetation before, during, and after decomposition.	Barton et al. (2016)	Strength: Vegetation can be easily sampled around carcasses at set time intervals. Weakness: Taxonomic expertize is needed.
Herbivores, pollinators, and secondary consumers	Modifies willingness of animals to forage near carcasses which influences grazing and pollination regimes. Presence of secondary consumers indicates broader role of carrion in ecosystem.	Herbivore movement and behavioral responses to carrion presence.	Baruzzi et al. (2018) and Weinstein et al. (2018)	Strength: Behavioral responses in close proximity to carcasses can be inferred easily from cameras. Weakness: Movement and behavioral responses at the landscape scale would be labor‐intensive and costly.
Infectious agents	Modifies willingness of animals to scavenge, thereby influencing carcass persistence.	Abundance, diversity, and richness of endo‐ and ectoparasites and microbial communities (viral, bacterial, fungal, and protist), during, and after decomposition. Evidence of deadly pathogen spillover to humans and wildlife.	Benbow et al. (2019)	Strength: Methods are established and could be used to identify infectious agents. Weakness: Costs and expertize can be prohibitive.
Olfaction	Altered VOC profiles or absent VOCs may influence rates of scavenging and in turn carrion persistence.	Measurements of VOC profiles around carrion during the different stages of decomposition.	Grigg et al. (2017)	Strength: Methods are established from forensic studies and could be applied in the field. Weakness: Specialist equipment required.