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Role of nanobacteria in stone formation. The nanobacteria may induce ROS production through the JNK/p-JNK signaling induction, may decrease mitochondrial membrane potential and promote cell apoptosis through the downregulation of Bcl-2 expression and the upregulation of Bax expression. Additionally, nanobacteria may lead to autophagy through the upregulation of LC3-II and Beclin-1 expression. ROS, reactive oxygen species; LC3-II, microtubule-associated proteins 1A/1B light chain 3B.
