Table 5.
Weighted linear mixed models evaluating the association between the average intakes of protein-rich foods across menstrual cycle (menstruation, midfollicular phase, expected ovulation, and midluteal phase) and log-transformed serum reproductive hormone concentrations measured up to 8 times per menstrual cycle for 2 cycles
| Unadjusted | Adjusteda | |
|---|---|---|
| Protein food groups (per serving) | % Difference (95% CI) | % Difference (95% CI) |
| All meats (median serving 2.98/day) | ||
| Estradiol (pg/mL) | 0.5 (-0.8, 1.9) | -0.1 (-1.6, 1.5) |
| Progesterone (ng/mL)b | 0.4 (-3.1, 4.1) | -1.2 (-5.2, 3.0) |
| LH (ng/mL) | -0.2 (-1.7, 1.2) | -0.1 (-1.7, 1.6) |
| FSH (mIU/mL) | 0.7 (-0.5, 1.8) | 0.6 (-0.7, 1.9) |
| Testosterone (ng/dL) | -0.2 (-0.8, 0.5) | 0.0 (-0.7, 0.8) |
| SHBG (nmol/L) | -0.3 (-0.8, 0.2) | 0.0 (-0.6, 0.6) |
| Red meats (median serving 0.52/day) | ||
| Estradiol (pg/mL) | 1.0 (-1.3, 3.4) | 0.3 (-2.1, 2.7) |
| Progesterone (ng/mL)b | -2.0 (-8.0, 4.4) | -4.8 (-10.9, 1.7) |
| LH (ng/mL) | 0.4 (-2.0, 2.9) | 0.4 (-2.1, 3.1) |
| FSH (mIU/mL) | 0.4 (-1.6, 2.3) | -0.2 (-2.2, 1.8) |
| Testosterone (ng/dL) | -0.5 (-1.7, 0.6) | -0.4 (-1.5, 0.8) |
| SHBG (nmol/L) | -0.1 (-1.6, 1.4) | 0.0 (-1.6, 1.5) |
| Poultry (median serving 1.27/day) | ||
| Estradiol (pg/mL) | 0.3 (-1.4, 2.1) | 0.0 (-1.9, 1.9) |
| Progesterone (ng/mL)b | 1.8 (-2.9, 6.8) | 1.2 (-3.7, 6.4) |
| LH (ng/mL) | -0.3 (-2.1, 1.6) | 0.0 (-2.0, 2.0) |
| FSH (mIU/mL) | 0.6 (-0.8, 2.1) | 0.9 (-0.7, 2.4) |
| Testosterone (ng/dL) | 0.4 (-0.4, 1.3) | 0.6 (-0.3, 1.5) |
| SHBG (nmol/L) | 0.3 (-0.8, 1.4) | 0.7 (-0.5, 1.9) |
| Processed meats (median serving 0.46/day) | ||
| Estradiol (pg/mL) | -0.2 (-3.7, 3.5) | -0.6 (-4.2, 3.2) |
| Progesterone (ng/mL)b | 1.4 (-7.8, 11.6) | 0.9 (-8.6, 11.4) |
| LH (ng/mL) | -1.7 (-5.3, 2.2) | -1.3 (-5.1, 2.8) |
| FSH (mIU/mL) | 0.6 (-2.4, 3.7) | -0.1 (-3.1, 3.1) |
| Testosterone (ng/dL) | -1.2 (-3.1, 0.6) | -0.9 (-2.7, 1.0) |
| SHBG (nmol/L) | 0.7 (-0.7, 2.2) | 0.5 (-1.9, 3.1) |
| Fish c (serving 41%) | ||
| Estradiol (pg/mL) | 4.1 (-1.2, 9.7) | 2.4 (-2.9, 8.1) |
| Progesterone (ng/mL)b | 14.1 (-1, 31.6) | 9.9 (-5.0, 27.0) |
| LH (ng/mL) | -0.5 (-5.9, 5.1) | -0.3 (-5.8, 5.6) |
| FSH (mIU/mL) | -0.8 (-5.1, 3.7) | -1.2 (-5.5, 3.4) |
| Testosterone (ng/dL) | 0.1 (-2.6, 2.7) | -0.1 (-2.7, 2.6) |
| SHBG (nmol/L) | -1.8 (-3.7, 0.2) | -1.9 (-5.2, 1.5) |
| Eggs (serving 64%) | ||
| Estradiol (pg/mL) | 0.2 (-4.7, 5.3) | -1.0 (-6.0, 4.3) |
| Progesterone (ng/mL)b | -7.1 (-19.4,7 .0) | -10.9 (-22.8, 2.9) |
| LH (ng/mL) | 3.8 (-1.6, 9.6) | 3.1 (-2.5, 9.0) |
| FSH (mIU/mL) | 4.2 (-0.1, 8.6) | 4.6 (0.2, 9.1) |
| Testosterone (ng/dL) | 1.3 (-1.1, 3.8) | 1.9 (-0.6, 4.4) |
| SHBG (nmol/L) | -1.1 (-2.9, 0.7) | 0.1 (-3.2, 3.5) |
| Meat alternatives c (serving 17%) | ||
| Estradiol (pg/mL) | -1.4 (-8.0, 5.7) | -1.7 (-8.4, 5.4) |
| Progesterone (ng/mL)b | 3.6 (-14.1, 24.8) | 3.1 (-14.3, 24.1) |
| LH (ng/mL) | 1.8 (-5.5, 9.6) | 1.9 (-5.5, 9.8) |
| FSH (mIU/mL) | -1.6 (-7.1, 4.2) | -3.6 (-9.0, 2.1) |
| Testosterone (ng/dL) | 3.2 (-0.3, 6.7) | 2.9 (-0.5, 6.5) |
| SHBG (nmol/L) | -0.9 (-5.3, 3.6) | -1.1 (-5.5, 3.4) |
| Legumes c (serving 37%) | ||
| Estradiol (pg/mL) | 1.3 (-4.0, 6.8) | 2.7 (-2.9, 8.6) |
| Progesterone (ng/mL)b | 17.1 (1.4, 35.2) | 22.3 (5.2, 42.1) |
| LH (ng/mL) | -0.8 (-6.2, 5.0) | -0.5 (-6.3, 5.6) |
| FSH (mIU/mL) | 2.6 (-1.9, 7.3) | 3.0 (-1.7, 7.9) |
| Testosterone (ng/dL) | -2.0 (-4.5, 0.7) | -2.3 (-4.9, 0.3) |
| SHBG (nmol/L) | -0.1 (-3.6, 3.4) | 0.0 (-3.5, 3.7) |
| Nuts and seeds c (serving 27%) | ||
| Estradiol (pg/mL) | -1.4 (-7.0, 4.4) | -0.9 (-6.7, 5.2) |
| Progesterone (ng/mL)b | 1.6 (-13.1, 18.8) | 0.7 (-14.3, 18.5) |
| LH (ng/mL) | -1.6 (-7.5, 4.6) | -2.1 (-8.2, 4.5) |
| FSH (mIU/mL) | -2.5 (-7.2, 2.3) | -4.0 (-8.7, 1.0) |
| Testosterone (ng/dL) | 0.7 (-2.1, 3.6) | 0.5 (-2.4, 3.5) |
| SHBG (nmol/L) | 2.1 (-1.7, 6.0) | 1.9 (-2.0, 5.9) |
| Nut and seed butters c (serving 23%) | ||
| Estradiol (pg/mL) | -0.8 (-7.0, 5.9) | 2.4 (-4.3, 9.6) |
| Progesterone (ng/mL)b | 3.5 (-12.9, 23.1) | 8.8 (-9.2, 30.5) |
| LH (ng/mL) | -3.4 (-9.7, 3.5) | -6.1 (-12.6, 0.9) |
| FSH (mIU/mL) | -3.1 (-8.3, 2.3) | -2.7 (-8.1, 2.9) |
| Testosterone (ng/dL) | -1.7 (-4.9, 1.6) | -2.9 (-6.1, 0.5) |
| SHBG (nmol/L) | -1.1 (-5.3, 3.4) | -1.3 (-5.7, 3.2) |
All models were adjusted for prior hormone levels using inverse probability weights.
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; CI, confidence interval; FSH, follicle-stimulating hormone; LH, luteinizing hormone; SHBG, sex hormone-binding globulin.
a Adjusted for age, race, BMI, physical activity, alcohol, blood cadmium, mercury, and lead concentrations, and intakes of total energy, fiber, and fat.
b Includes only measurements of progesterone during the luteal phase.
c Calculated for any versus no intakes (reference).