Figure 3.

Neuroscientific interventions for AF. Multiple approaches to neuroscientific therapies for AF have been developed at multiple levels of the cardiac neuraxis and include ganglionated plexus (GP) ablation; botulinum toxin injection in the GPs; vagal nerve and tragus stimulation; renal artery denervation; stellate ganglionic blockade; spinal cord stimulation; and baroreceptor activation therapy. Baroreceptor activation therapy and spinal cord stimulation have only been evaluated in preclinical models. IVC indicates inferior vena cava; LIPV, left inferior pulmonary vein; LSPV, left superior pulmonary vein; RSPV, right superior pulmonary vein. Adapted from Zhu et al., 2019.