Table 3.

Tier 2-summary of epidemiologic studies (with the most complete data) that report stratified concentrations of phenols by race/ethnicity during pregnancy/ the prenatal period

Author, Year	Cohort		N (total and by race/ethnicity)	Exposure	Differences in exposure within cohort	Findings compared to a representative sample of women from NHANES
(Berger, Eskenazi, Balmes, et al. 2018) [71]	CHAMACOS	Salinas Valley, CA	n=392 Mexican American	-3 parabens (methyl-, propyl- and butyl paraben) -benzophenone-3, and -triclosan concentrations measured in urine samples collected twice during pregnancy (mean 13 and 26 weeks gestation)	No comparison	-Higher concentrations of methyl paraben compared to NHANES Mexican American women aged 18–45.
(Polinski et al. 2018) [53]	Healthy Start	Aurora, CO	n=446; 256 White, 108 Hispanic, 53 African American, 29 All Others	-4 parabens (methyl-, ethyl-, propyl-, and butyl paraben) -benzophenone-3, and -triclosan from spot urine samples collected at 24–32 weeks gestation	- Lowest concentrations of parabens among White women. -Highest concentrations of triclosan and benzophenone-3 among White women	-Compared to a 2005–2010 NHANES sample of pregnant woman aged 16–44 years, benzophenone-3 was higher, triclosan, methyl paraben and propyl paraben concentrations were similar.
(Mínguez-Alarcón et al. 2019) [52]	EARTH	Boston, MA	n=420; 350 White, 70 Black/Asian/Other	-2 parabens (methyl paraben and propyl paraben) measured once or twice per IVF cycle	No comparison	No comparisons made
(Etzel et al. 2017) [96]	HOME	Cincinnati, OH	n=378; 235 White, 117 Black, 26 Other	-Triclosan measured in urine samples twice during pregnancy (average 16 and 26.5 weeks gestation)	- Higher triclosan concentrations among White participants	-Triclosan concentrations consistent with NHANES.
(Aung et al. 2019) [97]	LIFECODES	Boston, MA	n=480; 282 White, 77 African American, 121 Other	-4 parabens (methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl parabens) and -benzophenone-3, measured in urine samples up to four times (median 9.7, 17.9, 26, and 35 weeks gestation) during pregnancy	- Higher benzophenone-3, butyl paraben, and ethyl paraben concentrations among White participants - Higher methyl paraben and propyl paraben concentrations among African American participants - Higher triclosan concentrations among other race/ethnicity participants	-Concentrations of urinary phenols and parabens mostly comparable to concentrations in pregnant women from the NHANES (2005–2010) and NCS (2009–2010). -Higher median concentrations of methyl and propyl parabens.
(Mortensen et al. 2014) [98]	National Children's Study (NCS)	US sample	n=506; 30 Black, 328 White, 99 Hispanic, 49 Other	-2 parabens (methyl paraben, propyl paraben) -benzophenone-3, and -triclosan, from third trimester urine samples	- Highest mean benzophenone-3 concentrations among non-Hispanic White participants - Highest mean triclosan concentration among Hispanic women	-Concentrations similar to those from pregnant women in NHANES 2005–2010 except triclosan (decline from 2005-2008).
(Ashrap et al. 2018) [99]	PROTECT	Northern Karst Region, Puerto Rico	n=1003	-4 parabens (ethyl-, methyl-, butyl-, and propyl parabens) -benzophenone-3, and -triclosan, from two spot urine samples at 16-20 and 24-28 weeks gestation	No comparison	-Phenol and paraben concentrations tended to be higher than levels measured in women of reproductive age from the general US population.
(Lee-Sarwar et al. 2018) [100]	Vitamin D Antenatal Asthma Reduction Trial (VDAART)	Boston, MA; St. Louis, MO; and San Diego, CA	n=467; 202 Black, 120 White, 109 Hispanic, 36 Other	-2 parabens (methyl paraben, and propyl paraben) -benzophenone-3, and -triclosan concentrations were quantified in maternal plasma samples pooled from the first and third trimesters	- Other race/ethnicity participants had higher reported triclosan, methyl paraben, and propyl paraben	-Maternal plasma concentrations of triclosan, methyl paraben, and propyl paraben differed significantly between maternal race/ethnicity groups. -Personal care product use frequency differed significantly by race/ethnicity for all personal care products except for leave-in conditioner.
(Pycke et al. 2014) [101]	N/A- Recruited from University Hospital of Brooklyn Prenatal Clinic	Brooklyn, NY	n=190; 81 African American, 78 Caribbean/West Indian, 12 African, 15 Latino/Hispanic, 4 Other	-Triclosan collected from random spot urine samples once during the sixth-ninth month of pregnancy	No comparison	-Compared to the general population of the US, substantially higher concentrations of triclosan and at a higher frequency.